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The Ottoman Sultanate has just scored a hard won, but important victory in the Battle of Kosovo.
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With Prince Lazar perishing in battle, the
Serbian-led Christian coalition fell apart,
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and the powerful local lords now seek to assert
their rule over territorial remnants
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of what was once,
the Serbian Empire.
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But…
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Sultan Murad I, the man who transformed the
Osmanli tribe into a sultanate
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and engineered the early
Ottoman expansion into Europe,
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also fell on the fields of Kosovo.
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For a brief time,
the future remained uncertain…
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As the two battered armies retreated from
Kosovo,
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news of Murad I's death reached
the courts of Europe.
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Without his capable leadership, it perhaps
seemed that the early Ottoman conquest
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would be just another onrushing horde, more interested
in raiding and tributes,
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than in ruling the conquered lands.
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But… in Bayezid I, the Ottomans were blessed
with a gifted leader.
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The realm he inherited from his father
was loosely held together,
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still lacking the forms of
government needed,
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for the long term consolidation
of Ottoman rule.
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The new Sultan centralized the state based
on Turkish and Muslim traditions,
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founding the institutions and bureaucracy that could support an efficient rule,
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over the growing dominion.
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To strengthen his position in Europe, Bayezid
interfered in the power vacuum in Serbia,
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left in the wake of the Battle of Kosovo.
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With Prince Lazar’s death, his wife Milica
ruled until her son Stefan Lazarevic,
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came of age, but her hold
on power and territory,
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was threatened by Hungary
and other Serbian lords.
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Taking advantage of this, the Sultan used
a softer approach,
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offering to back young Stefan’s
succession to the throne,
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in exchange for Moravian Serbia
becoming an Ottoman vassal.
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Seeing this as the only option for her family
to stay in power,
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Milica accepted, giving her daughter’s hand in marriage to Bayezid, to officialise the treaty.
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With this shrewd bit of diplomacy, the Sultan
gained a strong buffer against Hungary
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and a vassal with an experience army that
would become a vital component
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in many Ottoman campaigns to come.
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In addition, the treaty freed up Ottoman
troops that were sent to subjugate
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other Serbian principalities
to the south.
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With his western flank secured, Bayezid
turned his army east into Anatolia,
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recognizing that its' resources and manpower
could fuel further Ottoman expansion.
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Despite being met by a strong anti-Ottoman
alliance, Bayezid scored a string of victories,
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often catching enemy commanders off-guard
with rapid movement and deployment of his
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troops, relying heavily on the Byzantine,
but especially Serbian shock heavy cavalry
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throughout the campaign.
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He began the resettlement of numerous Turkish
tribes from the conquered areas
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into the fertile plains of
Thrace and Rumelia.
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This influx of immigrants provided
additional revenue and manpower
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for future campaigns in the Balkans.
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Peace was signed in early 1391,
but Bayezid began making plans
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for another campaign
into eastern Anatolia.
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Then… news came from Europe…
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With most of Ottoman troops in Anatolia, Hungarian
forces raided deep into Serbian territory,
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which undermined Ottoman influence and sowed
seeds of rebellion in some areas.
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To the east, Voivode Mircea of Wallachia
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pushed into the Bulgarian
Principality of Karvuna
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to get the vital access
to the Black Sea,
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while also supporting rebellions
against the Turks further afield.
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Bayezid ordered his limited forces in southern Bulgaria to gather and strike north,
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meanwhile, abandoning his
Anatolian campaign
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in preparation to march back west,
aware that if Bulgaria was lost,
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Ottoman authority in the Balkans
would disintegrate.
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In Serbia, Turkish akinjis responded with
raids of their own, spreading devastation
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in Hungary’s southern regions, while Ottoman
forces in Bulgaria took Nicopolis
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and began conducting
operations into Wallachia.
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This forced Mircea to turn back west,
but with his troops stretched thin,
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he reluctantly sought support
from King Sigismund.
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The combined Hungarian-Wallachian offensive gradually pushed back across the Danube,
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retaking Nicopolis
by the end of the year.
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This galvanized anti-Ottoman
sentiment in Bulgaria,
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and a new Christian coalition
seemed to be forming.
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But, by the following year
Bayezid had returned…
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Before any Christian coalition could take
shape, the Sultan coordinated a series of
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lightning campaigns, absorbing the Kingdom
of Tarnovo and conquering most of Karvuna,
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before moving west to stabilize the situation
in Serbia and help his vassal Stefan
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to consolidate and expand his rule.
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The Despotate of Vidin was forced into the
Ottoman sphere and the Danubian fortresses
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of Silistria, Nicopolis and Vidin were strengthened.
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Bayezid’s rapid campaign stunned the Christians but, sensing that this would provoke a response
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from European rulers, he summoned his vassals at Serres, to reaffirm his overlordship
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and secure the Ottoman position in the Balkans.
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Directives and pledges were exchanged and
the Sultan selected Stefan Lazarevic as his
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most trusted vassal, with whom he carefully
cultivated a friendship, recognizing the importance
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of having the experienced Serbian knights
and heavy cavalry on his side.
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But not everyone at the meeting was pleased.
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Emperor Manuel left the gathering firmly believing
that Byzantium was doomed to be absorbed by
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the Turks, and upon returning to Constantinople
he threw off Ottoman suzerainty and prepared
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the city for a long siege, one that would
soon come, calling for help from the West.
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King Sigismund echoed Manuel’s concerns,
urging other Christian rulers to mobilize
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and drive the Ottomans out of Europe!
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The two Popes in Rome and Avignon also encouraged
a crusade against the Turks, although the
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Western Schism eroded any authority that the
papacy had in calling for a crusade.
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Hungarian envoys travelled to all major European
powers and, most importantly,
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confirmed treaties with England and France.
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The temporary cessation of hostilities
in the long Anglo-French war
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freed up vast manpower
and financial resources
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and was crucial in enabling the West
to form a multinational force.
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Duke Philip the Bold of Burgundy
was the principal financier of the endeavour
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and his son, John of Nevers was given command of the Franco-Burgundian element.
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Europe’s most advanced Mediterranean maritime
power, the Republic of Venice, together with
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the Republic of Genoa, combined their fleets
and joined the enterprise soon after,
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wanting to protect their lucrative
trade routes and rich coastal outposts.
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From the island of Rhodes, the Knights Hospitaller
pledged their support,
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having already been actively attacking Ottoman pirates and shipping in the Aegean,
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including the conquest of
Smyrna some 50 years earlier.
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Wallachia and Bohemia joined too, as did the Teutonic Knights and various German princes,
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and warriors also came from the Kingdom of Naples, Aragon, Castille, and Portugal,
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as well as the Swiss Confederacy, the Duchy of Savoy, Poland, and Moldova.
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Contingents from across Europe
set out towards the rendezvous point
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at the Hungarian city of Buda.
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Bayezid responded with a full-scale invasion of Wallachia,
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aiming to create another buffer
state against the Christians,
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and gain control over both
banks of the Lower Danube,
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a key strategic objective
in the upcoming war.
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However, Voivode Mircea
inflicted heavy defeats
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on the Ottomans in late 1394
and in the spring of 1395,
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but having suffered heavy losses himself,
he was forced to retreat to Hungary,
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while Bayezid held on to most
of his territorialgains,
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placing Vlad the Usurper
on the Wallachian throne,
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and installing additional garrisons
along the Danube,
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before retreating back to Edirne.
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By summer of 1396, the Franco-Burgundian and
other Crusader contingents gathered near Buda.
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At a War Council held in early July,
the first order of business,
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was to coordinate
land and naval operations.
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The overwhelming naval superiority of the
Crusaders was to play a major role
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during the Nicopolis campaign.
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In the south, Venetian and Genoese fleets
were to combine with the Knights Hospitaller
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in the Aegean, and sail up into the Sea of
Marmara.
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A part of the fleet would remain there
to raid the enemy coast and prevent
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the transport of Ottoman
supplies and troops from Anatolia,
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using ports in Constantinople, Smyrna
and Genoese possessions
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to dock and repair their vessels.
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From the Sea of Marmara, another part of the fleet would sail to the river Danube,
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where the Genoese garrison at Kiliya would be strengthened to help protect the mouth of the river
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from any possible Ottoman relief
forces sailing upstream.
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The remainder of the fleet
were to then proceed up the Danube,
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until they met up
with the army at Nicopolis.
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Meanwhile, another fleet of some 70 ships
and barges sailed down the Danube,
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in support of the army that marched out of Buda,
led by the Hungarian vanguard
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along the left bank of the river,
followed by the Western Crusaders,
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with Sigismund leading the
Hungarian force in the rear.
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The King of Hungary at first preferred a defensive
strategy, wanting to let Bayezid wear down
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his troops by marching into
hostile Hungarian territory.
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But with the summer ending and the enemy nowhere
in sight, Sigismund knew that it would be
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impossible to maintain a large army in one
area for long, proposing instead a pre-emptive
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strike and the re-establishment of Christian
rule in Bulgaria, which would inevitably restrict
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the Ottoman expansion into Europe.
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The king also preferred to send a part of
his army east through southern Transylvania
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and then into Wallachia to reassert his overlordship
and, once across the Carpathian mountains,
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Hungarian troops were to help
restore Mircea to the throne
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and regain control over the left bank
of the Lower Danube.
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But the French and Burgundian commanders insisted
on a decisive campaign that would expel the
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Ottomans from the continent, by marching through
Bulgaria to capture the capital Edirne
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and relieving Constantinople, which was
under blockade for the past two years.
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By mid-to-late August, the main Crusader column
stopped at Orshova, where the supply fleet
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began ferrying the troops across the Danube
for the next 8 days.
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The news of the invading force reached Bayezid
at Constantinople.
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Unable to transport more troops from Anatolia due to the Christian blockade in the Sea of Marmara,
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he withdrew with his best troops
and headed towards Edirne, maintaining only
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a loose blockade around
the Byzantine capital.
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Meanwhile in the west, vassal contingents,
led by the Serbs under Stefan Lazarevic,
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were to march via Sofia towards Plovdiv.
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It was around this time that Ottoman spies
intercepted a letter from Manuel to Sigismunud
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that said:
“The Turks are coming, prepare yourself!”
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Bayezid ordered the troops to gather south
of the Balkan mountains, wishing to stay out
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of range of any Crusader scouting parties
and keep the enemy guessing on his whereabouts
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until his army was ready.
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Knowing that the Christians
crossed at Orshova,
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the Sultan sensed that they will stay close
to their support fleet on the Danube,
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and that Nicopolis would be
their main entry point into Bulgaria.
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Standing on high ground, Nicopolis had a
commanding view over the Danube.
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It was a major port and ferry crossing, close
to the river Olt, that is navigable far into
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Wallachia towards Transylvania, and the river Osam, who’s valley leads deep into central Bulgaria.
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During the past couple of years, Bayezid strengthened
its’ fortifications and placed a well-supplied
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garrison under the command of one of his highly
experience officers, Dogan Beg,
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knowing that the strategically
important city had to be held.
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To the north, part of the Hungarian army,
together with Transylvanian and Wallachian troops,
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managed to restore Mircea to the throne
and establish contact with the Crusader fleet
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anchored at the mouth of the Danube, telling
them they can now move upstream.
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Meanwhile the main Crusader army advanced
along the right bank of the Danube
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into the Despotate of Vidin.
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Sratsimir of Bulgaria, having no desire to
fight for the Turks,
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surrendered the fortified city of
Vidin without a fight.
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Subsequent Crusader raids were conducted
across his lands towards the south-west,
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displeasing Sigismund, who perhaps sought to gain control over these lands after the war.
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Priests and friars that were part of the expedition
noted the indiscipline of the Frankish troops,
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who frequently mistreated
the Christian population.
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At Rahovo, after a brief skirmish the population
agreed to surrender to the King of Hungary
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and, with assurance that their lives and property
would be spared, they opened the gates.
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But to Sigismund’s dismay, Franco-Burgindian
troops broke the agreement and proceeded to
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pillage and massacre the inhabitants, taking
around 1000 Turkish and Christian hostages,
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before setting the town ablaze.
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Not far to the east, was Nicopolis…
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By September 12th, groups of peasants
trickled into Nicopolis,
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fleeing from the several pillaged towns to the west,
in the Despotate of Vidin.
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Following close behind
was the Crusader column.
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The main camp was established just east of the city, close to the Danube riverbank,
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with a separate camp for prisoners nearby.
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Half of the supply fleet followed close-by,
moving to blockade the port,
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while the troops started deploying
to encircle the city.
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The inhabitants were gripped with fear,
but the commander ordered
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his well-drilled garrison
to their stations on the walls.
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The siege had begun…
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The well-fortified city was largely
impervious to direct assaults,
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and the garrison determined
that surrender was not an option.
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Downstream, Venetian and Genoese ships appeared with additional men and supplies,
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after sailing for 12 days from
the mouth of the Danube,
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moving into position to transfer the troops
from the northern bank of the river.
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Then, the sound of Hungarian riders,
drew Sigismund’s attention.
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The King had sent 500 horsemen
on an extensive reconnaissance mission,
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over 100km to the south.
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And the scouts reported
that the Turks have gathered.
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Sigismund advised that a plan of action be
discussed, but was forced to acquiesce to
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the Franco-Burgundian commanders,
who were unmoved by the reports.
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Indeed, the Western knights were the elite
and well-equipped grizzled veterans
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of many battles, who firmly believed
in their superior fighting abilities,
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confident that they will fight and defeat
the enemy, should he appear.
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But, reports of the Turkish presence alarmed Voivode Mircea and Lord Coucy, a veteran French noble.
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They assembled 500 knights
and 500 mounted archers,
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and rode out to sweep
the southern outskirts of the city.
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Their hunch proved correct…
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An Ottoman messenger weaved his way across
the land towards Nicopolis, sneaking past
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the Christian siege lines, to deliver
a message from Bayazid that said:
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“Hold on bravely,I will not abandon you.”
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The inhabitants of Nicopolis rejoiced, cheering
and blowing horns throughout the day.
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Soon… Mircea’s and Coucy’s
scouting party
00:19:34
spotted the forward elements
of the Ottoman army.
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Seeing the smaller Wallachian mounted contingent,
the Turks galloped forward.
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With his horsemen Mircea feigned retreat,
signalling to the French to disperse
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and conceal themselves
before they were seen.
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As the Ottoman vanguard pursued the enemy
they were funnelled through a narrow gap in
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the forest, eager to chase down
the Wallachian voivode.
00:20:05
But once they came in-between Coucy’s hidden
contingent, the French Lord gave the signal!
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In the ensuing melee, no quarter was given,
with many in the Ottoman vanguard falling
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within minutes,
while the rest fled soon after.
00:20:25
Meanwhile, the ongoing celebrations in Nicopolis
angered some of the prominent French Knights,
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who believed this to be a ruse to force the
Crusaders to loosen the siege and array for battle,
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insisting that the Sultan would not
dare attack such a large concentrated force
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of Christian knights, superior in equipment,
training, and experience.
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Furthermore, French nobles threatened to cut
off the ears of anyone who discussed rumours
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of Bayazid’s approach, arguing that it could
damage the morale of the crusaders.
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But the returning scouting party
dispelled all doubts…
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Bayezid is coming.
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In frustration, King Sigismund demanded a
War Council.
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The meeting was a loud and shouty affair.
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But then, Sigismund stood up.
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He suggested that the Wallachian infantry
should form the first line.
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Having experience in fighting the Turks, they
would lead the attack and be tasked with dispersing,
00:21:32
or at least softening the first Ottoman line.
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The elite French heavy cavalry would form
the second line, waiting for the right time
00:21:41
to rush in and punch through Bayezid’s ranks.
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Meanwhile, Hungarians and other allied contingents would support the attack
00:21:49
and protect the flanks from
the sipahi cavalry attacks.
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Knowing how the Turks fight, Mircea agreed
that this was the right course of action.
00:21:59
But the plan faced stiff opposition…
00:22:03
Prominent representatives of the French contingent
were outraged!
00:22:08
They were of the opinion that, by being asked
to take up the rear dishonoured them greatly,
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insisting they will lead the attack.
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Accusations were laid against Sigismund and Mircea that they wanted to steal all of the glory.
00:22:24
John of Nevers, commander of the Franco-Burgundian element, stood up and gave his support
00:22:29
to the French nobles,
convinced by their confidence.
00:22:35
The matter was settled.
00:22:36
And with the Ottoman army only hours away,
it was time to array for battle…
00:22:44
As they deployed at daybreak, the Crusaders
left a token force to continue the siege,
00:22:50
before summarily executing the thousand or
so prisoners taken at Rahovo, fearing a possible
00:22:55
rescue attempt by the garrison in Nicopolis
during the attack on Bayezid’s position.
00:23:02
Neither army enjoyed
numerical superiority.
00:23:06
On the Christian side, the heavily armored
French knights lined up in the front,
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with the Hungarians in the rear,
Wallachians on the left flank,
00:23:15
and Transylvanian troops on the right.
00:23:18
Bayezid, meanwhile, deployed a screen of akinji
light cavalry in the front,
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with regular infantry in the second line,
00:23:26
and a contingent of around
1000 elite Janissary infantry in the rear,
00:23:31
while the Rumelian and Anatolian sipahi cavalry
were on the flanks.
00:23:37
Further back on the right and center were
the elite Kapikulu Sipahis,
00:23:41
the Ottoman version of heavy cavalry,
renowned for their discipline,
00:23:45
though less armored than the
European knights of this period.
00:23:49
Further left the Serbian Knights, clad in
advanced plate armor, were the only contingent
00:23:55
in Bayezid’s army that could face the French
knights head-on.
00:24:00
Sigismund advised Nevers that his scouts will
be returning soon with intelligence on the
00:24:05
numbers and positioning of enemy forces, asking
that the attack be postponed for two hours.
00:24:12
Nevers summoned a hasty council, where the older, more experienced knights,
00:24:17
thought it wise to obey
the wishes of the Hungarian king,
00:24:21
while the younger hawks presumed that Sigismund wants the battle honours for himself,
00:24:26
at the same time accusing
the older French knights,
00:24:29
that their advice didn’t show wisdom,
but fear…
00:24:35
From there, the discussion rapidly devolved
into a shouting match.
00:24:41
Then, all of a sudden a battle cry pierced
the air: “Forward, in the name of God!"
00:24:50
Sigismund, bewildered by
the sudden decision to advance,
00:24:54
gave the signal to support the
French charge.
00:24:57
Since most of his troops in the center were
infantry and couldn’t keep pace,
00:25:02
the Hungarian king kept
his cavalry from charging,
00:25:05
in order to maintain a solid line.
00:25:09
Up the field, thousands of knights
and their horses, fully armored,
00:25:13
trotting forward in unison,
must’ve been a terrifying sight.
00:25:19
On battlefields such as Nicopolis, where dense
forest and sloped terrain didn’t allow room
00:25:24
for cavalry maneuvers beyond the flanks, their
shock charge was at its’ deadliest.
00:25:31
Arrow volleys simply bounced off, and the
akinjis were only able to string a few shots
00:25:37
before the violent armored charge
swept them aside.
00:25:43
Those that faced the French charge directly
suffered heavy casualties, but managed to
00:25:48
retreat back towards the infantry line, while
the rest retreated towards the flanks.
00:25:54
Soon, however, the knights encountered a line
of sharpened stakes, fixed into the ground
00:25:59
to drive into the breast of the charging horses.
00:26:03
This slowed down the Crusader advance, as
some of the knights had to maneuver their
00:26:08
horses through the hedge of stakes, while
others dismounted and continued the attack
00:26:13
on foot, uprooting the stakes as they went.
00:26:17
A continuous rain of arrows
did little against the thick armor,
00:26:21
and the French soon reached
the main enemy line!
00:26:26
Straight away Bayezid ordered the sipahis
on the flanks to join the fighting, seeing
00:26:31
that his formation in the center began falling
apart almost immediately upon impact.
00:26:37
In close combat, the regular Turkish infantry was getting slaughtered by the dismounted knights,
00:26:43
whose armor seemed impervious.
00:26:46
The elite Janissaries too could only fight
on the back foot, overwhelmed by the number
00:26:51
of knights facing them, although they started
inflicting losses on the Christians.
00:26:57
Nevertheless, the advance continued
and even Bayezid was taken aback
00:27:01
by the ferocity of the Crusader assault.
00:27:05
Despite half of them being on foot, the armored knights drove off the sipahi cavalry,
00:27:10
mauling everything in front of them.
00:27:14
Bayezid ordered the remnants of his akinjis, infantry, and sipahi cavalry to reform the
00:27:20
line in order to slow down
the incoming Hungarians,
00:27:24
who were approaching to reinforce
the crusader vanguard.
00:27:28
At this point, some of the older French commanders wanted to stop the advance,
00:27:33
to consolidate the line
and link up with Sigismund.
00:27:36
But the young knights
urged the men on…
00:27:39
Convinced that the battle was almost won,
they were eager to continue forward
00:27:44
in the hope of plundering
the Ottoman camp.
00:27:48
The Sultan sent in the Kapikulu Sipahis, realizing
that the battle had reached a critical point.
00:27:56
The elite Ottoman cavalry descended upon the
Crusaders, gradually surrounding their position.
00:28:03
In the desperate fight that ensued,
00:28:05
John of Nevers, commander
of the French contingent, was captured.
00:28:10
This was a blow to the morale but, nevertheless,
the Crusaders fought on,
00:28:15
staving off charge after charge
of the elite Kapikulu.
00:28:21
Seeing John’s banner falling, Sigismund
ordered a full charge, in a desperate attempt
00:28:26
to establish contact with the knights
in the vanguard.
00:28:30
However, Wallachian and Transylvanian troops
withdrew, choosing to preserve their forces,
00:28:36
apprehensive that a disaster
has befallen them.
00:28:40
But the battle was not over…
00:28:44
Upon dispersing the screen of akinjis, the
Hungarians fell upon the reformed,
00:28:49
but much depleted Ottoman line.
00:28:52
The battered Turkish footmen could not withstand
the fresh troops, and were broken soon after.
00:28:59
Sipahi cavalry pressed forward, desperate
to stop Sigismund’s advance.
00:29:05
Akinjis launched another attack!
00:29:10
Undeterred, the Hungarian king pushed on.
00:29:14
Getting ever closer, it seemed that the tired
Ottoman troops could not stop Sigismund.
00:29:20
If he could link up with the knights in the
front, the battle would be won.
00:29:25
But then…
00:29:26
Bayezid played his trump card, sending the
Serbian knights forward!
00:29:34
Seeing that the overwhelmed Ottoman line could break at any moment, Stefan spurred his horse on,
00:29:40
leading the charge towards
the Hungarian flank.
00:29:45
The shock of the charge was devastating.
00:29:49
Serbian knights ploughed through the enemy,
causing Sigismund’s right flank to collapse
00:29:53
within minutes, stopping the Hungarian attack
dead in its’ tracks.
00:29:59
Soon, remnants of the line routed towards
the safety of their fleet on the Danube.
00:30:06
King Sigismund reportedly said: “We lost the battle by the pride and vanity of those French!”
00:30:16
The now isolated French knights kept fighting, but their numbers slowly dwindled,
00:30:21
and it was only a matter of time
before their strength gave out…
00:30:26
The bulk of the Crusader troops were destroyed
or captured.
00:30:30
3000 prisoners were brought before the Sultan
and executed on the spot, as revenge for the
00:30:36
massacre of 1000 Ottoman
prisoners prior to the battle,
00:30:40
while the rest were ransomed or enslaved.
00:30:44
A small portion of the army, including
Sigismund, escaped.
00:30:49
Ottomans losses were also high, particularly
in infantry, several thousand of which perished.
00:30:56
But Bayezid’s victory was complete.
00:31:00
Memories of Nicopolis would discourage any
Western European intervention against the
00:31:05
Ottomans for centuries to come, while the
Hungarians and Wallachians continued the struggle,
00:31:12
along with remaining pockets of Greek resistance.
00:31:16
The utter defeat of the Crusaders at Nicopolis
ended any chance of rolling back the Ottoman
00:31:21
tide in Europe, who maintained pressure on
Constantinople, tightened their control over
00:31:27
the Balkans, and would go on to become a great
threat to Central Europe…
