00:00:05
From deep within the dunes of Africa's
00:00:07
Namib Desert, a terrible secret is
00:00:11
beginning to
00:00:14
emerge. These are the remains of victims
00:00:16
of the world's first death
00:00:19
camp. A place where thousands of
00:00:21
Africans were exterminated by the German
00:00:24
army 30 years before the Nazis came to
00:00:27
power.
00:00:30
These remains have lain here forgotten
00:00:33
for over a hundred years. But this
00:00:36
terrible place is not
00:00:40
unique. Scattered across the world are
00:00:43
the sites of the massacres and genocides
00:00:45
of
00:00:47
imperialism where millions died in an
00:00:50
aspect of colonial history that Europe
00:00:52
often chooses to forget.
00:00:56
These people were victims of the truth
00:00:58
that lies behind the myth of the white
00:01:01
man's
00:01:03
burden. Throughout the 19th century,
00:01:06
European scientists, writers, and
00:01:09
philosophers developed ideas to justify
00:01:12
the mass killings of the age of
00:01:15
empire. These same theories went on to
00:01:18
inspire some of the horrors and the
00:01:20
savagery that would consume Europe in
00:01:23
the 20th century.
00:01:46
The 19th century was to end with the
00:01:48
worst crimes of empire, but it began
00:01:51
with a great moment of optimism.
00:01:55
In the 1830s, in the great plantations
00:01:58
of the Caribbean, Britain prepared to
00:02:01
become the first nation to end
00:02:06
slavery. 3/4 of a million slaves across
00:02:09
the Caribbean were about to be freed.
00:02:12
And as Britain basted in her sense of
00:02:14
national benevolence, it was presumed
00:02:17
that the grateful slaves would transform
00:02:19
themselves into a hardworking and
00:02:21
Christian peasantry.
00:02:33
[Music]
00:02:44
The battle against slavery had been led
00:02:47
from the pullpit by an alliance of
00:02:49
Christian abolitionists and
00:02:50
missionaries.
00:02:52
They had fought the campaign from their
00:02:54
churches and meeting
00:03:01
halls in the 1830s. It was their views
00:03:04
that dominated the national debate on
00:03:10
race. When slavery was finally
00:03:13
abolished, there would have been an
00:03:15
enormous sense of elation and
00:03:17
achievement on the part of the
00:03:18
abolitionists. Don't forget this was a
00:03:20
50-year campaign from 1787 onwards
00:03:23
involving hundreds of thousands of
00:03:25
ordinary British people, petitions, etc.
00:03:27
So that when slavery was abolished, the
00:03:29
abolitionists had won. A sort of a sense
00:03:31
of triumph. I think they also felt that
00:03:33
that question, am I not a man and a
00:03:36
brother was
00:03:40
answered. The abolitionist response to
00:03:43
that great question was that although
00:03:45
men and brothers, black people were
00:03:48
lesser men and lesser
00:03:51
brothers. I think in that moment the
00:03:54
dominant perspective is of a
00:03:58
hierarchical racial order, but one in
00:04:01
which it's a question of culture and
00:04:03
civilization. They certainly do not
00:04:06
think that black people are equal to
00:04:08
them at this time. They think maybe at
00:04:11
some time in the future they will be
00:04:13
equal.
00:04:15
The mission to raise up the black and
00:04:17
brown peoples of the world to the
00:04:19
supposedly superior level of white
00:04:21
Englishmen was not to be confined to the
00:04:23
former slaves. This was to be the great
00:04:27
task that would justify the expansion of
00:04:29
the British Empire. The abolitionists
00:04:32
satisfied one aspect of their tutilage
00:04:36
and governance of black people in that
00:04:38
they fought and won for the freedom of
00:04:41
black people. The next step was to send
00:04:44
your stormtroopers, your missionaries
00:04:47
into Africa and the Caribbean to finish
00:04:49
off the job as it were. You know, these
00:04:51
are heathens who have to be brought into
00:04:53
into the fold of Christianity.
00:04:55
That notion of giving civilized values
00:04:58
and modes of behavior to other peoples,
00:05:01
that's the ideology that underpinned the
00:05:04
empire. In the empire that the
00:05:06
missionaries and abolitionists set out
00:05:08
to create, indigenous peoples would see
00:05:11
their cultures destroyed and their
00:05:13
religions
00:05:15
eradicated. And yet all this seems
00:05:17
almost benign when compared with the
00:05:20
grim reality of what imperialism became.
00:05:23
Because during the 19th century, their
00:05:26
dream was gradually overwhelmed by
00:05:28
another vision. One that claimed that
00:05:31
the dark races could not be civilized
00:05:33
and should instead be
00:05:41
exterminated. The event that began the
00:05:43
slow collapse of the missionaries vision
00:05:46
took place in the then little known
00:05:48
outpost of Britain's vast and expanding
00:05:50
empire.
00:05:54
This is Tasmania on the southern coast
00:05:57
of
00:05:58
Australia. What the British did on this
00:06:00
small island was to resonate down
00:06:03
through the Victorian
00:06:10
age. When the British started to settle
00:06:13
in Tasmania in 1803, they encountered
00:06:16
the ancient Aboriginal peoples of the
00:06:18
island. only 5,000 strong, they had
00:06:22
lived in complete isolation for 10,000
00:06:24
years on the very edge of the habitable
00:06:31
world. The settlers saw these people
00:06:33
through ideas brought with them from
00:06:36
Europe. Quite early, you get expressions
00:06:39
of disgust and shock about the way the
00:06:43
Tasmanians lived. To the Europeans, it
00:06:47
appeared that the Tasmanians were
00:06:49
without culture. They were without
00:06:52
religion. They were godless. So, they
00:06:55
looked upon the Tasmanians as people
00:06:57
who'd been left behind by history. And
00:07:01
they also related to a very popular idea
00:07:04
of the late 18th century, that is the
00:07:06
great chain of being that the various
00:07:09
races of humankind were arranged in
00:07:12
hierarchical order. and that the
00:07:15
Tasmanians were uniquely savage and
00:07:17
primitive and therefore can be treated
00:07:20
almost as animals.
00:07:26
The British set about building a new
00:07:28
capital and settling the surrounding
00:07:31
countryside, land that for millennia had
00:07:34
been the prime hunting ground of the
00:07:39
Aboriginals. Out in these fields and
00:07:41
pastures, far from the control of the
00:07:44
authorities, the settlers were free to
00:07:46
displace and abuse the
00:07:49
[Music]
00:07:52
Aboriginals. From the 1820s, huge amount
00:07:55
of Aboriginal land has been taken up and
00:07:58
there is this enormous struggle between
00:08:00
Aboriginal people and whites. Of course,
00:08:03
it's very hard to document a lot of the
00:08:06
settler violence because they know that
00:08:08
it is against the law to kill Aboriginal
00:08:11
people. They are being told that
00:08:12
Aboriginal people are British subjects,
00:08:15
but they certainly reveal in their
00:08:17
diaries and journals the desire to kill
00:08:20
Aboriginal people.
00:08:22
What became known as the Black War was a
00:08:25
hidden conflict. The landscape itself
00:08:27
was the only witness. The British
00:08:30
settlers killed any Aboriginals they
00:08:33
encountered. Whole groups were
00:08:34
massacred. Kidnapping and rape became
00:08:37
common place. The Aboriginals regularly
00:08:40
attacked the settlers as they fought
00:08:42
desperately to defend their land. And as
00:08:44
the death toll rose, fear fused with
00:08:47
hatred.
00:08:49
In such circumstances, it was very easy
00:08:53
um on both sides, no doubt, to regard
00:08:57
the other side as being totally
00:08:59
subhuman. I've got no doubt that the
00:09:01
Aborigines thought the Europeans were
00:09:04
people totally without morality uh or
00:09:08
without any restraint. Equally, the the
00:09:11
Europeans uh slipped very quickly into a
00:09:15
view that these people were animals and
00:09:17
savages. So that conflict in such a
00:09:21
racially divided society so easily tips
00:09:25
over into an extreme feeling of
00:09:30
hatred. The death toll of the Black War
00:09:32
had terrifying implications for the
00:09:34
Tasmanian Aboriginals. The British, who
00:09:37
arrived in everinccreasing numbers,
00:09:39
could replace their dead. But the
00:09:41
Aboriginals, only 5,000 strong before
00:09:44
the war, could not. And by the end of
00:09:47
the 1820s, they were at risk of being
00:09:50
completely
00:09:51
annihilated. The only man who had any
00:09:53
hope of halting the violence was the
00:09:56
colonial governor George Arthur. Now,
00:09:59
the governor of Tasmania is an
00:10:02
evangelical. He knows Wilberforce and he
00:10:06
is aware that his future and his
00:10:11
reputation depends on how he deals with
00:10:14
this problem above all else. Now, he's
00:10:17
already been warned in the late 1820s by
00:10:20
the British
00:10:22
government that the rapidly declining
00:10:25
numbers suggests that these people might
00:10:28
be exterminated. And were this to
00:10:32
happen, it would be an indelible stain
00:10:35
on the reputation of the British
00:10:38
Empire. But by implication, it would
00:11:22
The poster also propagated the lie that
00:11:25
the British wanted to integrate with the
00:11:27
Aboriginals. It was both a fiction and a
00:11:30
complete failure because out in the
00:11:33
bush, the killings on both sides
00:11:35
continued. And in 1830, Governor Arthur
00:11:39
embarked upon a new policy. He ordered
00:11:42
the army to sweep across the area of
00:11:44
European settlement in an attempt to
00:11:46
capture the remaining Aboriginal
00:12:46
Robinson took a message that the
00:12:49
government wanted to come to some sort
00:12:52
of an
00:12:53
agreement, a negotiation, a peace
00:12:57
treaty. And that is, I believe,
00:13:00
undoubtedly the way the Aborigines saw
00:13:02
it. They too saw this as a way to end a
00:13:07
conflict which they had realized they
00:13:10
could never win. They could never get
00:13:12
rid of the
00:13:13
Europeans. If they stayed and fought,
00:13:16
they would be wiped out.
00:13:18
and Robinson and his intermediaries
00:13:21
convince them that they should
00:13:25
temporarily go to an island where
00:13:27
they'll be looked after and
00:13:29
fed and that they will ultimately Um,
00:14:53
husband had been murdered in front of
00:14:55
her. All of them had seen their culture
00:14:58
almost wiped out. What little was left,
00:15:02
Robinson now set out to
00:15:04
erase. Because Point Civilization was
00:15:07
not merely a settlement. It was
00:15:09
essentially a factory to transform
00:15:12
so-called savages into civilized
00:15:14
Christians.
00:15:16
To become a successful Christian, he
00:15:19
believes you have to settle down. You
00:15:21
have to live in a village. He wants to
00:15:24
send the children to school. He wants to
00:15:27
teach them to to plow and to sew and to
00:15:30
become agriculturalists.
00:15:37
Forced to adopt an alien way of life and
00:15:40
confined to an island hundreds of miles
00:15:42
from home, they began to succumb to
00:15:44
European diseases and what the local
00:15:47
doctor called dejected
00:15:50
spirits. They die one by one by one.
00:15:55
Children are not being born and there
00:15:58
must have been this enormous sense of
00:16:01
trauma amongst them. A people that had
00:16:04
once been strong and healthy suffering
00:16:08
this enormous
00:16:10
decline within a generation.
00:16:15
George Robinson, the supposed savior of
00:16:18
the Aboriginals, was reduced to
00:16:20
sketching out his plan for their future
00:16:22
graves.
00:16:25
Frequently he he cries with the mourers.
00:16:30
He weeps himself. He's so moved by their
00:16:34
fate. But ultimately he says, "Well, it
00:16:37
is better that they die here having
00:16:40
letared the message of uh of the gospels
00:16:43
rather than be killed in the bush by the
00:16:45
settlers." He finds a way to ease his
00:16:48
own conscience so that Robinson's own
00:16:50
beliefs, you see, protect him against a
00:16:53
full accounting of what he was partly
00:16:56
responsible for.
00:17:03
Of the 300 Aboriginals lured to Flenders
00:17:06
Island, by the mid 1840s, around 260
00:17:10
were dead.
00:17:17
Jinny,
00:17:20
Manama, and Watti had all
00:17:28
succumbed. Tranini was one of the few
00:17:31
survivors. She lived on, growing into
00:17:34
old age. When she finally died in
00:17:37
1876, she was regarded by some as being
00:17:40
the last full-blooded Tasmanian.
00:17:44
A people whose story could be traced
00:17:46
back 10,000 years had within the span of
00:17:49
a single lifetime been almost
00:17:58
exterminated. What had happened in
00:18:00
Tasmania was far from being a unique
00:18:07
event. Across the world, indigenous
00:18:10
peoples were being pushed to the brink
00:18:12
of
00:18:13
extinction. In the South African Cape,
00:18:16
the Koisan peoples have been driven from
00:18:18
their land, enslaved and killed in their
00:18:21
thousands by British settlers and the
00:18:24
bo. The same forces had also attacked
00:18:27
the ancient Stan Bushmen of the
00:18:28
Kalahari, hunting them down as if they
00:18:31
were
00:18:32
animals. In New Foundland, the native
00:18:35
Beeruck peoples had been completely
00:18:37
wiped out by
00:18:39
Europeans. And in South America, wars of
00:18:42
extermination sanctioned by the
00:18:44
Argentinian government were raging
00:18:46
against the Pampas Indians. Everywhere
00:18:49
it seemed, white settlers were
00:18:51
destroying indigenous peoples.
00:19:05
And in these very same years, the old
00:19:08
racism that had been born in the age of
00:19:10
slavery began to
00:19:14
reemerge. In the aftermath of abolition,
00:19:17
competition from new sugar producers
00:19:19
began to undermine Britain's once mighty
00:19:22
sugar plantations.
00:19:24
And as their estate rotted, the former
00:19:27
slave owners began to blame their ruin
00:19:30
on the people who had once made them
00:19:34
rich. When the Caribbean plantations
00:19:37
started to lose money in a big way, um
00:19:40
they fell back to the stereotype of the
00:19:42
lazy negro.
00:19:45
The planters were then able to say to
00:19:47
the abolitionists and to Britain, look,
00:19:49
we are now in ruin because we no longer
00:19:52
have the freedom to coair splacks to
00:19:55
work. We no longer have the freedom to
00:19:56
to drive them to work. These people are
00:19:59
intrinsically lazy. You know, you were
00:20:01
arguing that they were human beings, a
00:20:03
man and a brother, but in fact, they're
00:20:04
not. They're still at the level of
00:20:06
beasts.
00:20:10
Whereas up to the end of the
00:20:13
1830s, it's been pretty unpopular to
00:20:17
talk about Africans in those ways and
00:20:20
the respectable talk of the
00:20:22
humanitarians about Africans has been,
00:20:25
you know, far more prevalent. By the mid
00:20:28
1840s, that's beginning to shift. Those
00:20:32
who argued that abolition had been a
00:20:34
failure due to the laziness and savagery
00:20:37
of the slaves now claimed that the
00:20:39
Christian vision of a civilizing empire
00:20:42
was also doomed.
00:20:45
You might say that the moral momentum
00:20:47
ran out of the abolitionist movement.
00:20:50
People found that other races were not
00:20:54
becoming civilized. There was something
00:20:58
difficult.
00:21:00
They fought back. They didn't seem to
00:21:04
learn as fast as we would appreciate to
00:21:07
make them more pliable for
00:21:09
us. Christian optimism about the spread
00:21:12
of civilization and the Christianization
00:21:16
of people of color around the world
00:21:19
began to drain away.
00:21:23
If the non-white races seem to reject
00:21:25
the message of the missionaries, some in
00:21:27
Britain began to ask if they could be
00:21:29
civilized at
00:21:31
all. One of those who thought not was
00:21:33
the eminent writer and historian Thomas
00:21:36
Carlilele. In 1849, Carlilele published
00:21:40
an essay entitled Occasional Discourse
00:21:43
on the Negro Question in which he
00:21:46
appealed for a return to some form of
00:21:48
slavery.
00:21:50
It was printed and reprinted in
00:21:52
magazines across the world and helped
00:21:54
transform the 19th century debate about
00:21:57
race. Carlilele's voice is a kind of
00:22:00
prophetic voice, you know, which booms
00:22:03
out from
00:22:05
his study in in Cheney Walk in Chelsea.
00:22:10
And he writes these, you know,
00:22:12
extraordinarily powerful prophetic
00:22:14
pieces which were read, you know, with
00:22:18
gusto by Victorians. than they I mean
00:22:21
one can imagine them all sitting around
00:22:23
their fires reading the latest
00:22:25
periodical that's come out with this
00:22:27
flow of
00:22:28
rhetoric in this case in the occasional
00:22:31
discourse on the negro question the flow
00:22:33
of rhetoric is about the necessity for
00:22:36
inequality inequality is the proper way
00:22:40
to run a society those who know should
00:22:43
rule those who don't know men should
00:22:45
rule women white people should rule
00:22:48
black educated people should rule the
00:22:51
masses.
00:22:55
The depth to which these ideas became
00:22:57
embedded within mid Victorian society
00:23:00
was revealed by one of the most
00:23:02
controversial events of the whole 19th
00:23:07
century. In 1865, the people of Morant
00:23:11
Bay, a tiny settlement in East Jamaica,
00:23:15
attacked a courthouse during a minor
00:23:17
demonstration.
00:23:22
In return, the governor general imposed
00:23:24
martial law and ordered his soldiers to
00:23:28
go on a killing spree. It was a killing
00:23:31
time. Nearly 500 people were just
00:23:34
executed. 600 people just fgged, some of
00:23:36
them to the point of death, and a
00:23:38
thousand homes torched. Enormous
00:23:42
um disparity in terms of the retaliation
00:23:46
against these people. And you know, when
00:23:47
all this was being done, the so-called
00:23:49
rebels didn't put up a fight. You know,
00:23:51
when their houses were being burned,
00:23:54
they didn't they weren't terrorists.
00:23:56
They weren't murderers, you know. All
00:23:58
they wanted was for the judiciary to
00:24:00
treat them with with a with a sense of
00:24:02
justice.
00:24:04
The man who ordered the killings was
00:24:06
Governor
00:24:07
Edward. And when news of what he had
00:24:09
done reached Britain, the liberal
00:24:11
establishment was shocked. And the cause
00:24:14
is taken up by the old abolitionists
00:24:18
who've kept going and kept going and
00:24:20
kept going. And the old anti-slavery
00:24:23
societies kind of wrenched themselves
00:24:25
back into action and mobilized
00:24:26
themselves again. And all the ladies
00:24:28
who've been doing it for decades when
00:24:30
the men have gone off and done more
00:24:32
interesting things. You know, there they
00:24:34
are with the machinery still in place
00:24:36
that can be mobilized when you need to.
00:24:38
Their tactic was to put Governor Heir on
00:24:41
trial for mass murder. But in court, he
00:24:44
was acquitted due in part to a huge wave
00:24:46
of popular support. He had the whole of
00:24:50
House of Lords, parliamentarians,
00:24:51
bishops, priests, the establishment, the
00:24:54
aristocracy backing him, saying that he
00:24:56
was justified uh he was justified in
00:24:59
imposing severe order in these people
00:25:01
because that's the only language they
00:25:03
could understood because they black
00:25:04
people were brutes.
00:25:07
heir's defense was orchestrated by the
00:25:09
high priest of the new racism, Thomas
00:25:12
Carlilele.
00:25:15
But behind him stood many members of the
00:25:17
British literary elite. All of whom made
00:25:20
known their support for Governor Heir
00:25:22
and his actions at Morant
00:25:24
Bay. The art critic and writer John
00:25:29
Ruskin. The author of Vanity Fair,
00:25:32
William Makepiece Stackery. The Reverend
00:25:35
Charles Kingsley, writer of the
00:25:37
children's classic The Water Babies, and
00:25:40
Charles Dickens, the most celebrated
00:25:43
author of the century.
00:25:46
the notion of treating other people with
00:25:49
some degree of justice and rule of law
00:25:52
finally went out of the window and was
00:25:55
demolished in uh in the 1860s over
00:25:57
Moren. You know, from then on we knew
00:25:59
that the empire was about ruling people
00:26:02
with the maximum degree of coercion.
00:26:19
Some of the new ideas about race in the
00:26:21
high Victorian age drew their evidence
00:26:24
from the world of the
00:26:26
dead. Based on the study of corpses and
00:26:28
skeletons, the burgeoning science of
00:26:31
anatomy laid the foundations for a new
00:26:34
scientific racism.
00:26:38
In Britain, the most important race
00:26:40
scientist was a now forgotten
00:26:42
Edinburghough surgeon. Ruined by a body
00:26:45
snatching scandal in the 1820s, he had
00:26:48
fled Britain in disgrace. But in the
00:26:51
1840s, Dr. Robert Knox resurfaced with a
00:26:55
publication of a new book.
00:26:59
Race is everything. Literature, science,
00:27:02
art, in a word,
00:27:04
civilization depends on it. For Robert
00:27:07
Knox in that book, race is everything.
00:27:11
It determined your character. It
00:27:12
determined your position in
00:27:14
civilization. It determined your
00:27:16
destiny. Can the black races become
00:27:18
civilized? I should say not. He saw
00:27:22
racial conflict and extermination
00:27:25
happening all around the world. It was
00:27:27
natural for him to believe that racial
00:27:31
types were bound to struggle and that
00:27:34
the superior races would dominate the
00:27:37
naturally inferior ones. The Saxon race
00:27:40
will never tolerate them, never
00:27:42
amalgamate, never be at peace. It is a
00:27:45
war of
00:27:46
extermination. One or other must.
00:27:50
Robert Knox was not a lone voice. In
00:27:53
America, a group led by the renowned
00:27:56
craniologist Samuel George Morton had
00:27:59
begun to collect the skulls of different
00:28:00
races and compare them. Skulls were
00:28:04
chosen to be measured because it was
00:28:06
reckoned that the skull was the
00:28:08
container of the most important part of
00:28:10
the human body, the brain. The bigger
00:28:13
the skull, the bigger the brain. The
00:28:14
shape of the skull, the shape of the
00:28:16
brain.
00:28:18
The American School of Race Scientists
00:28:20
concluded that the races as measured
00:28:23
through their skulls were so different
00:28:25
as to be separate
00:28:28
[Music]
00:28:30
species. Tasmanians, Africans, American
00:28:33
Indians were not the lower races of men.
00:28:36
They were perhaps not fully human at
00:28:38
all.
00:28:46
One writer compared the extermination of
00:28:49
these races by white settlers as being
00:28:52
like the melting of snow before the
00:28:55
advancing rays of the
00:28:59
sun. But the theory that was to have the
00:29:02
most powerful impact upon race came not
00:29:05
from the anatomists or the skull
00:29:07
measurers, but from the work of one of
00:29:09
the 19th century's greatest minds.
00:29:14
[Music]
00:29:18
The origin species really threw a
00:29:19
bombshell first of all into science. It
00:29:21
really invented the science of biology
00:29:24
and then into religion and into society.
00:29:27
And what Darwin did in some ways was to
00:29:29
give an alibi for being a judge. If
00:29:32
evolution had changed the races and the
00:29:34
species of the world, why hadn't he done
00:29:37
the same to humans?
00:29:39
Many believed that Darwin's laws had
00:29:42
done just that. Natural selection, they
00:29:45
claimed, neatly explained and justified
00:29:49
the global expansion of the great
00:29:52
British race.
00:29:55
Life favors a hierarchy of
00:30:00
specialists, and you find that
00:30:02
throughout the plant and the animal
00:30:03
world.
00:30:04
[Music]
00:30:08
There are bugs on top of bugs on top of
00:30:10
bugs. Each one surviving at another's
00:30:12
expense. Each one filling a niche that
00:30:15
another can't
00:30:17
[Music]
00:30:22
occupy. People, Darwin said, are the
00:30:24
same way. They are expansive organisms.
00:30:28
In other words, Englishmen are just like
00:30:30
other organisms. They are successful
00:30:33
because they are good at
00:30:36
expanding. Those who understood
00:30:38
colonialism and human competition in
00:30:41
terms of Darwin's theories became known
00:30:44
as the social
00:30:45
Darwinists. Men like the radical
00:30:47
biologist Thomas Henry Huxley and the
00:30:51
famous economist Herbert
00:30:53
Spencer and social Darwinism foresaw
00:30:56
very different fates for the various
00:30:58
races of mankind.
00:31:01
Evolution was in operation.
00:31:05
It was advancing the most recently
00:31:09
evolved, the most successfully evolved,
00:31:12
that is the northern Europeans, the
00:31:15
British. But evolution also suggested
00:31:19
that there had to be losers in this
00:31:22
great cosmic process. And the losers
00:31:25
were those peoples who could not
00:31:29
compete and once put into competition
00:31:32
with superior races were doomed to
00:31:35
disappear. And this was likely to happen
00:31:37
to all the native peoples in North
00:31:39
America, in the Pacific, and in Africa.
00:31:43
Across the world, the crimes of
00:31:45
imperialism now came to be taken as
00:31:47
proof that the social Darwinists were
00:31:50
right.
00:31:59
In North America, centuries of disease
00:32:01
and war had devastated the Native
00:32:04
Americans. Whole nations had been all
00:32:06
but
00:32:07
annihilated. In parts of the Australian
00:32:10
mainland, the peoples of the outback
00:32:12
were, it seemed, going the same way as
00:32:14
their cousins in Tasmania.
00:32:17
And across Africa, the scramble for
00:32:19
empire had brought the might of Europe
00:32:22
to bear against innumerable peoples,
00:32:25
killing literally
00:32:30
[Music]
00:32:33
millions. The social Darwinists
00:32:35
predicted a future in which these races,
00:32:38
like many animal species, would only be
00:32:41
remembered as
00:32:42
curiosed exhibits in anthropological
00:32:45
museums. the white man's burden and the
00:32:48
Christian dream of benign imperialism
00:32:50
were rendered obsolete.
00:32:53
old missionaries who still talked about
00:32:56
the equality of humanity and talked
00:32:59
about everyone descended from Adam and
00:33:01
Eve and talked about that the truth the
00:33:05
only truth came from the Bible were seen
00:33:08
as being extraordinarily old-fashioned
00:33:10
who simply had failed to come to terms
00:33:13
with the great scientific thinking of
00:33:15
the age
00:33:17
and these racial theories were not only
00:33:20
applied in new colonies but also in the
00:33:23
oldest parts of the
00:33:27
empire. In the traditional story of
00:33:30
imperialism, British India has usually
00:33:32
been represented as an example of benign
00:33:35
imperial rule. The British Raj, we are
00:33:37
told, was run by men who were competent,
00:33:40
professional, and wise. Men who brought
00:33:43
order and prosperity to a chaotic land.
00:33:46
But there is an aspect of Indian history
00:33:48
that has been written out of this
00:33:49
account of the imperial past.
00:33:53
[Music]
00:33:56
In the mid 1870s, the great dam plane of
00:33:59
India was affected by the climatic
00:34:01
phenomenon we now know as El Nino. And
00:34:04
within months, millions of peasants had
00:34:07
begun to starve.
00:34:10
The monsoons had failed. People had
00:34:12
eaten their food reserves. India stood
00:34:14
on the precipice of a great human
00:34:16
tragedy. At this point, the viceroy of
00:34:19
India, Lord Linton, was totally absorbed
00:34:22
in in what was probably the largest
00:34:25
party in world history. Uh, celebrating
00:34:28
the coronation of Queen Victoria as
00:34:32
Empress of India. This is one of the
00:34:35
great catering feats in history since it
00:34:37
meant whining and dining. uh more than
00:34:40
60,000 sat traps and princes and
00:34:44
retainers and friends of the British
00:34:46
Empire uh in India over the course of a
00:34:50
long
00:34:55
week as Lord Littton and the ruling
00:34:58
elite of the Raj feasted at banquetss
00:35:00
and posed for official photographs.
00:35:03
Millions were slowly dying in the
00:35:05
countryside and the viceroy justified
00:35:07
his inaction with arguments gleaned from
00:35:09
the social
00:35:13
Darwinists. This was a very very crass
00:35:16
use of a Darwinian evolutionary notion
00:35:20
of survival of the fittest whereby a
00:35:23
famine could be actually seen as an
00:35:26
instrument of of Darwinian winnowing.
00:35:29
Yes. that people who were unfit uh would
00:35:32
effectively perish as a result of this
00:35:34
and to intervene to stop them perishing
00:35:37
was really to interfere with with almost
00:35:39
a rule of
00:35:43
nature. What made the famines especially
00:35:46
deadly was that the British had
00:35:48
dismantled ancient systems that had for
00:35:50
centuries prevented food shortages from
00:35:52
turning into famines.
00:35:55
If you'd had a poor monsoon and there
00:35:57
was a food shortage, many people still
00:35:59
had enough. They may have had less, but
00:36:01
they would have had enough because they
00:36:03
grew their own food or they would have
00:36:04
had access to it from from other groups
00:36:07
in the community who would share it with
00:36:09
them during a time of
00:36:11
crisis. All this had been wiped away
00:36:13
when the British force the poorest
00:36:15
peasants to grow cash crops like wheat
00:36:17
and rice for export, thereby ushering
00:36:20
them into a global market. And in the
00:36:23
1870s, that market condemned them to
00:36:27
death. By
00:36:29
1877, millions in southern and central
00:36:31
India were
00:36:33
starving. In desperation, parents sold
00:36:36
their children for scraps of food. Many
00:36:38
thousands committed suicide. And in some
00:36:41
places, the people were forced into
00:36:46
cannibalism. And all the while, the food
00:36:48
that could have saved them was piled up
00:36:50
on the docks of Madras, ready to be
00:36:53
shipped to Britain and
00:36:57
America. But to Lord Littton, it was no
00:37:00
more than an unfortunate byproduct of
00:37:02
the iron laws of social Darwinism.
00:37:06
If you read the letters of Lord Littton,
00:37:09
what is so striking about them is not
00:37:11
simply their fanatical devotion to uh to
00:37:14
the market and then and and market
00:37:17
forces. It's not simply their, you know,
00:37:21
parsimony and desire to spend as little
00:37:23
as possible, but the enormous calm with
00:37:28
which they accept the fact that millions
00:37:30
of Indians would die because these are
00:37:32
Indians they believe are the useless
00:37:33
part of the population. The poorest of
00:37:35
the poor, people condemned to death by
00:37:37
nature.
00:37:43
When finally Litton was pressured into
00:37:45
action, his solution proved just as
00:37:48
deadly as the famine itself.
00:37:52
Lord Littton sets up a system of outdoor
00:37:55
relief that looks more like Nazi
00:37:57
concentration camps than anything
00:37:59
representing decent human charity. First
00:38:02
of all, there's the obligatory test. You
00:38:04
can't be relieved. That is given a job
00:38:06
or food within 10 miles of your
00:38:08
residence. You must walk and you must
00:38:10
walk sometimes distances of hundreds of
00:38:12
kilometers and tens of thousands of
00:38:15
people die in the course of that. Then
00:38:16
you're put to work doing heavy labor,
00:38:19
very heavy labor, breaking stone,
00:38:21
working on the railroads, and you're
00:38:23
confined then to swallowed camps where
00:38:25
your daily diet is in caloric terms less
00:38:28
than that provide to inmates of
00:38:30
Bukinwall and other Nazi concentration
00:38:32
camps. They become literally and simply
00:38:35
death camps. And perhaps worst of all,
00:38:37
children were now too weak and small to
00:38:39
do the necessary uh work. children
00:38:42
became the the main victims of Britain's
00:38:45
coolhearted
00:38:50
[Music]
00:38:54
policies. 8 million Indians died in the
00:38:57
famines of the
00:38:59
1870s. But they were not the only
00:39:01
famines of the British Raj. And they
00:39:03
were not the last. Famines returned in
00:39:06
the 1880s and the 1890s. And in all
00:39:10
almost 30 million Indians starved to
00:39:12
death under British rule. A story
00:39:15
airbrushed out of the glorious accounts
00:39:17
of the Raj and the men who ruled over
00:39:19
it.
00:39:23
[Music]
00:39:43
Social Darwinism had justified genocidal
00:39:45
policies in the colonies. And in the
00:39:48
same years, it also fueled new fears
00:39:50
amongst the British elite. Fears of
00:39:52
other dangerous races living in their
00:39:54
midst, the working classes of their own
00:39:57
cities.
00:40:00
[Applause]
00:40:02
Race and class are actually very close
00:40:04
to each other. If you look at books
00:40:06
about race around Darwin's time, they
00:40:09
often talk about the Cocknney race, the
00:40:11
English country race, the the Scottish
00:40:15
race. There were drawings of the head of
00:40:18
a typical member of the Cocknney race
00:40:20
and the word was used quite
00:40:23
seriously. There were maps made of where
00:40:26
the criminal races lived. These were the
00:40:29
rrookeries. This was the east end, the
00:40:32
uh the melting pot of all the horrors of
00:40:34
going to go out infect the rest of part
00:40:35
of the
00:40:39
population. Race scientists and social
00:40:42
reformers visited prisons to study the
00:40:44
criminal races at firsthand. And among
00:40:47
them was Charles Darwin's cousin,
00:40:49
Francis Golton. Golton was terrified by
00:40:52
the fact that the underclass were
00:40:54
reproducing faster than the middle
00:40:56
classes. Darwinian law had, it seemed,
00:40:59
been turned on its head. The least fit
00:41:01
were surviving. Reversing this situation
00:41:04
became his mission. Darwin had looked
00:41:07
backwards. Where have we come from?
00:41:09
Golton turned the telescope around and
00:41:12
looked forward. Where were we going? And
00:41:14
he devoted much of the rest of his life
00:41:16
to the idea of understanding homo
00:41:18
sapiens, us as a species, and trying to
00:41:21
direct where homo sapiens was going to
00:41:23
go in order to become more sapient, more
00:41:26
wise in the future, more of a genius and
00:41:28
less of what he saw, more stupid, more
00:41:31
ignorant, and more decayed.
00:41:37
Golton designed a new science of human
00:41:39
selective breeding. He dreamed of
00:41:41
encouraging the middle classes to have
00:41:43
more children and inhibiting breeding
00:41:45
amongst the lower and criminal classes.
00:41:48
And he named his new science
00:41:51
eugenics. In the last decades of the
00:41:53
19th century, it became widely
00:41:56
respected, attracting an array of
00:41:58
highprofile supporters.
00:42:01
They included many of the great figures
00:42:03
of the late 19th, early 20th century.
00:42:04
People like George Bernard Choy, HG
00:42:06
Wells, uh Winston Churchill. All of them
00:42:09
absolutely convinced
00:42:12
[Music]
00:42:18
eugenicists. In the first years of the
00:42:20
20th century, all the racial theories
00:42:23
developed in the Victorian age.
00:42:25
Eugenics, social Darwinism, and
00:42:27
scientific racism came together in a
00:42:30
forgotten outpost of
00:42:33
colonialism. This is Namibia. But at the
00:42:37
dawn of the 20th century, it was the
00:42:39
German colony of Southwest Africa and
00:42:42
home to an ancient people called the
00:42:45
Herrera. In 1904, they rebelled against
00:42:48
the brutality of German rule. What
00:42:51
followed was to prefigure the worst
00:42:53
crimes of the 20th century.
00:42:58
The Germans committed innumerable
00:43:00
massacres and atrocities, but they were
00:43:02
unable to hunt down and destroy all the
00:43:04
Herrera people across such a vast
00:43:07
landscape. And when the Nama, another of
00:43:10
the Namibian peoples, rose up, the
00:43:12
Germans turned instead to a recent
00:43:14
invention, the concentration camp.
00:43:22
In these camps, the Herrerero and Nama
00:43:24
were imprisoned and
00:43:26
enslaved. Thousands were worked to
00:43:29
death, others raped, beaten or simply
00:43:32
murdered by the guards.
00:43:44
The most infamous and deadly of the
00:43:47
camps was at a place called Shark
00:43:53
Island. Shark Island was established for
00:43:56
the express purpose of killing
00:43:59
people. Anybody placed on that island,
00:44:02
everybody knew they were going to
00:44:04
die.
00:44:06
People knew that. The German officers
00:44:09
knew that. If I were to have to use the
00:44:12
language of the Nazi period, then I
00:44:15
would certainly see Shark Island as a
00:44:18
death camp.
00:44:21
The people
00:44:23
were bang together in Shak Island from
00:44:26
all over Namibia. Heros,
00:44:29
Tamaras, Bushman, Nama. And they had
00:44:33
cool blooded murder
00:44:36
there. My own family, my
00:44:39
ancestors that they were also killed
00:44:43
there. In this desolate place on the
00:44:46
southern edge of Africa, 3 and a half
00:44:49
thousand people were exterminated with
00:44:51
the speed and efficiency that was to
00:44:53
become the hallmark of 20th century
00:44:55
slaughter.
00:44:57
The genocides which took place in
00:44:59
Namibia in 1904 to 199. They are the
00:45:02
precursor to what happens in the Nazi
00:45:05
period, they are the precursor. They
00:45:07
have the
00:45:09
same symptoms in the sense that you can
00:45:12
see the bureaucratization of mass
00:45:14
killing and this
00:46:06
The site of Shark Island lie some of the
00:46:09
victims of the 20th century's first
00:46:11
genocide.
00:46:28
Other victims were denied even the
00:46:30
meager dignity of a mass
00:46:33
grave. They became the raw material of
00:46:36
racial
00:46:39
science.
00:46:42
Their skulls and even severed heads were
00:46:47
sold to museums in Europe and used to
00:46:49
prove the inferiority of
00:46:52
[Music]
00:46:56
Africans. The trade in skulls was so
00:46:58
accepted that it was even depicted on a
00:47:01
postcard.
00:47:11
In the aftermath of the genocide, German
00:47:14
racial scientists continued to use
00:47:16
Namibia as a field laboratory and the
00:47:18
African peoples who had survived as
00:47:21
their subjects.
00:47:25
In 1908, a eugenicist called Oen Fischer
00:47:29
traveled to the small town of Riaboth,
00:47:31
home to a people of mixed bore and
00:47:33
African heritage, who called themselves
00:47:35
the Riaboth
00:47:38
basters. Fischer and his assistants
00:47:41
spent months photographing, measuring,
00:47:44
and examining the inhabitants of this
00:47:47
town, people whose descendants still
00:47:49
live here.
00:47:54
The person at the bottom there is my
00:47:59
grandfather, Malcolm
00:48:01
McNab, and above him is his brother,
00:48:05
Charles
00:48:07
McNab. My grandfather used to talk a lot
00:48:10
about what they
00:48:13
did, measurements, the eyes, the nose,
00:48:16
the lips, the ears, hair, etc.
00:48:21
They was not
00:48:23
aware of the nature of the
00:48:27
[Music]
00:48:30
experiment. Lying in the vaults of an
00:48:33
archive in modernday Namibia, Oen
00:48:36
Fisher's original files and photographs
00:48:38
remain as he left them a century ago.
00:48:41
They reveal his methods and also his
00:48:44
aims. Here, Ogan Fischer has lined the
00:48:47
different pictures up next to each other
00:48:49
to try to trace very specific facial
00:48:52
features like the eyes or the noses. And
00:48:54
the reason he's done this is to try to
00:48:56
show how very specific African facial
00:48:59
features like high cheekbones and the
00:49:00
the drawn out eyes that represent the
00:49:03
African genes are very prominent and
00:49:06
become more prominent through the
00:49:08
degenerations.
00:49:10
Oegan Fischer came to Namibia to prove
00:49:13
one basic point and that was that racial
00:49:15
mixing was always bad and that the
00:49:18
African gene is dominant over the white
00:49:23
[Music]
00:49:27
gene. Fischer's work in Riaboth sealed
00:49:30
his reputation as one of Germany's
00:49:32
leading racial scientists.
00:49:35
It also brought in recognition from a
00:49:37
nation that was then experiencing the
00:49:39
greatest influx of immigration the world
00:49:42
had ever
00:49:43
seen. In the first years of the 20th
00:49:46
century, the ethnic makeup of America
00:49:49
was being transformed as millions of
00:49:51
immigrants poured into her great
00:49:54
cities. Many of those who feared that
00:49:56
mass immigration would lead to
00:49:58
widespread racial mixing looked to the
00:50:00
ideas of eugenics, an increasingly
00:50:02
powerful science.
00:50:05
Eugenics flourished, mutated and went
00:50:07
out of control when it got to the United
00:50:09
States. And the irony is that the
00:50:13
eugenics movement in the United States,
00:50:15
which which uh certainly descended
00:50:19
directly from Golton,
00:50:21
um had the great advantage of having a
00:50:24
lot of money, huge amount of money.
00:50:27
[Music]
00:50:30
Some of that money was used to establish
00:50:32
the eugenics records office ran by the
00:50:35
infamous Charles
00:50:37
Davenport. In order to defend the health
00:50:39
and purity of the white race, Davenport
00:50:42
and his followers sought to identify
00:50:44
those classes and those races in America
00:50:47
whom they considered genetically
00:50:50
unfit. Identified and monitored, the
00:50:53
scientists would then take control of
00:50:54
their lives and their fertility.
00:51:00
Once you were identified as a certain
00:51:02
class, it meant what school you could go
00:51:05
to, what cemetery you could be buried
00:51:07
in, where you could live. It was a
00:51:09
matter of life and
00:51:11
death. Marriage laws were established in
00:51:13
dozens of states around the United
00:51:15
States, saying that people could not
00:51:16
marry outside of their group. Blacks
00:51:18
could not marry whites. Um, Indians
00:51:20
could not marry blacks. In Virginia, if
00:51:23
you married the wrong person, meaning
00:51:25
interracial marriage, they would unmar
00:51:27
you. They would invalidate your
00:51:31
marriage. 27 states passed eugenics
00:51:34
marriage laws. An eugenicist spread
00:51:37
their message using the new medium of
00:51:46
[Music]
00:51:52
cinema. The propaganda was intended to
00:51:55
protect the genetic health of the white
00:51:57
race.
00:52:01
[Music]
00:52:05
This would be achieved by eradicating
00:52:08
those deemed unworthy through forced
00:52:10
mass sterilization.
00:52:13
[Music]
00:52:16
They went about methodically tracking
00:52:18
ancestry and target and targeting
00:52:21
bloodlines for extinction. That's
00:52:24
eugenics. the effort to create a white
00:52:28
master blonde, blue-eyed, master race by
00:52:33
wiping out other bloodlines until they
00:52:36
were left only with
00:52:39
themselves and people who resembled
00:52:42
[Music]
00:52:45
themselves. And what's important here is
00:52:48
that these people thought they were
00:52:50
saving humanity. These people thought
00:52:52
they were liberals. They were reformers.
00:52:55
[Music]
00:52:58
Eugenics was a worldwide movement. In
00:53:01
Sweden, an official program forcibly
00:53:04
sterilized 60,000 people, mental
00:53:06
patients, and members of the ethnic
00:53:08
minorities. In Britain, the Eugenic
00:53:11
Society received widespread support from
00:53:13
across the political spectrum.
00:53:18
[Music]
00:53:25
But it was in Germany that the radical
00:53:28
ideas of the American eugenics movement
00:53:30
found its most receptive audience.
00:53:36
Anything connected to America would seem
00:53:38
to be modern, progressive, scientific,
00:53:41
democratic, reasonable. So it must be
00:53:43
good. America was the future, the force
00:53:45
of the future. Secondly, I think that
00:53:48
many European eugenicists, including the
00:53:50
Germans, like the tone adopted by
00:53:52
American eugenicists, which was very
00:53:54
radical and sort of nononsense and they
00:53:57
didn't use euphemisms. They said exactly
00:53:59
what they meant. The Americans provided
00:54:02
more than just
00:54:04
inspiration. American foundations also
00:54:06
bankrolled the development of German
00:54:09
eugenics. This was the Kaiser Vilhelm
00:54:12
Institute of Anthropology and Human
00:54:14
Heredity. In the 1930s, the men and
00:54:17
women who worked here received grants
00:54:19
from the American Rockefeller
00:54:22
Foundation. And the leading scientist
00:54:24
here was the man who made his name in
00:54:27
Namibia, Oegan
00:54:30
Fiser. Under the Nazis, Fischer was
00:54:33
empowered to sterilize the racially
00:54:35
mixed people of Germany's rhinand, 400
00:54:38
of them, all children.
00:54:41
The majority of those sterilized by the
00:54:43
Nazis before 1939, however, were the
00:54:45
mentally
00:54:47
ill. But when the Nazis began their war,
00:54:50
they abandoned sterilization in favor of
00:54:53
adult euthanasia, the Nazi euphemism for
00:54:58
murder. The victims of this program were
00:55:01
amongst the first people gassed by the
00:55:03
Nazis. But the program wasn't restricted
00:55:05
to the mentally
00:55:07
ill. when um they have killed the target
00:55:12
figure of mental patients they want to
00:55:14
kill which is roughly 70,000 people they
00:55:16
slightly exceeded it so the first thing
00:55:18
they do then is to contact the SS who
00:55:21
have large numbers of what they deem to
00:55:23
be sick um concentration camp prisoners
00:55:26
in other words people who might have got
00:55:28
wear glasses or you know be myopic or
00:55:31
have a wooden leg or something so they
00:55:33
want them out of the way so these people
00:55:35
oblige and they take 15 or 20,000 people
00:55:38
from the concentration camps and kill
00:55:40
them on behalf of the SS, it's a bit
00:55:42
like sort of contract work. And then
00:55:45
when the um uh SS and other people have
00:55:48
decided they're going to go for the big
00:55:50
project, which is to kill the Jewish
00:55:52
population of Europe, and in particular
00:55:54
that of Poland, which is the biggest
00:55:56
population they're concerned with. Then
00:55:58
those people push themselves forward and
00:56:00
say, "Well, hey, we can do this. We've
00:56:02
done it. We have a record of doing this.
00:56:04
We murder people." and they become the
00:56:07
core personnel in all the big
00:56:09
extermination camps.
00:56:12
These killing centers were the second
00:56:14
network of concentration camps and death
00:56:17
camps in German
00:56:19
history. And the experts in eugenics or
00:56:22
race hygiene as the Germans called it
00:56:25
were involved not just in their
00:56:26
day-to-day running but also in the
00:56:28
highest levels of planning.
00:56:31
It's worth reminding ourselves that the
00:56:33
Bonsai Conference, which is the one that
00:56:36
set up the plan for the final solution,
00:56:38
almost half the people around that
00:56:40
table, had doctorates, PhDs in race
00:56:43
hygiene or genetics as we'd say today.
00:56:46
So there really is a genuine link
00:56:49
between the Goltonian agenda and the
00:56:52
horrors which happen in Germany.
00:56:57
The German experts in race hygiene who
00:57:00
assembled here at the Vansy Villa
00:57:02
outside Berlin dreamed of racial
00:57:04
genocide just like their spiritual
00:57:06
predecessors, the race scientists and
00:57:08
the social Darwinists of the Age of
00:57:13
Empire. But the colonial genocides
00:57:15
inspired and justified by the 19th
00:57:18
century theorists have been written out
00:57:20
of Europe's history.
00:57:23
The horrors of the Shark Island death
00:57:26
camp, the destruction of the Tasmanian
00:57:33
Aboriginals, the 30 million victims of
00:57:36
the Indian
00:57:38
famines, all have been
00:57:43
forgotten. The erasure of this memory
00:57:46
encourages the belief that Nazi violence
00:57:49
was an aberration in European history.
00:57:52
Though the Holocaust itself was
00:57:54
motivated by the fanatical anti-semitism
00:57:56
of the Nazis, it can also be seen as
00:58:00
part of a longer historical
00:58:02
continuum, one that identifies it as a
00:58:05
logical extension of scientific
00:58:08
racism. But this history, like the bones
00:58:12
in the Namibian deserts, refuses to
00:58:15
remain buried forever.
00:58:19
[Music]
00:58:32
[Music]
00:58:39
[Music]
00:58:45
[Music]