Week 10 - Part 1

00:40:00
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkUriDxWOn4

الملخص

TLDRKelas ini membahas Zaman Pencerahan, transisi penting dari pemikiran tradisional ke pemikiran kritis. Tekanan dari penemuan ilmiah, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Galileo, menantang kebijakan gereja dan memperkuat keinginan untuk menyelidik kebenaran. Tokoh seperti Jordano Bruno dan David Hume mengilhami pendekatan baru dalam ilmu pengetahuan dan filosofi, sementara Adam Smith meremuskan ide ekonomi yang mendorong perdagangan bebas dan efisiensi. Kelas ini menekankan pentingnya skeptisisme dan empirisme dalam mengevaluasi kenangan masa lalu.

الوجبات الجاهزة

  • 📚 Zaman Pencerahan merangsang pemikiran kritis.
  • 🔭 Galileo mengubah pandangan orang tentang alam semesta.
  • 🔥 Jordano Bruno dihukum mati karena pandangan ilmiahnya.
  • 🤔 David Hume mendorong skeptisisme dan empirisme.
  • 💰 Adam Smith mendefinisikan prinsip ekonomi modern.
  • 📖 Penemuan menciptakan bahan bacaan baru dan meningkatkan pemikiran kritis.
  • 🌍 Alam semesta bukanlah satu-satunya tempat hidup, ide-ide baru muncul.
  • 🧪 Penemuan teknologi memberikan alat untuk penyelidikan lebih dalam.
  • 💡 Kritik terhadap ajaran agama memperkaya dialog intelektual.
  • ✨ Pencerahan memberi kita kebebasan berpikir secara mandiri.

الجدول الزمني

  • 00:00:00 - 00:05:00

    Kelas ke-10 memfokuskan pada zaman pencerahan dan alasan, merujuk kepada bagaimana sebelum era ini, pengetahuan tidak banyak berubah kerana masyarakat bergantung kepada ajaran masa lalu. Dengan penemuan pencetakan oleh Gutenberg, orang ramai mula membaca dan berfikir secara kritikal, yang membuka jalan kepada pencerahan.

  • 00:05:00 - 00:10:00

    Galileo menjadi ikon bagi pencerahan dengan teorinya tentang pergerakan bumi mengelilingi matahari, yang mencabar pemikiran tradisional. Hal ini menyerlahkan bahawa pengetahuan yang diwarisi mungkin tidak selalu benar, mendorong masyarakat untuk mempersoal kembali apa yang diajarkan kepada mereka.

  • 00:10:00 - 00:15:00

    Jordano Bruno adalah contoh pemikir kritikal yang dihukum mati kerana teorinya yang berbeza, termasuk ide bahawa terdapat banyak bintang dan mungkin makhluk lain di planet lain. Walau bagaimanapun, ideanya dianggap benar dengan penemuan planet lain di luar sistem solar kita.

  • 00:15:00 - 00:20:00

    Perubahan besar bermula dengan Galileo yang menggalakkan pemikiran kritis dan empirisme, dimana orang tidak lagi menerima bulat-bulat ajaran tanpa persoalan. Pencerahan juga membawa kebangkitan skeptisisme, di mana individu mula mencabuli kepercayaan yang ada dan memandu mereka untuk mencari kebenaran sendiri.

  • 00:20:00 - 00:25:00

    Contoh pencerahan di Scotland, terutamanya melalui tokoh seperti David Hume, yang mengetengahkan skeptisisme radikal dan empirisme, mendorong orang untuk mencari bukti sendiri sebelum menerima sebarang kebenaran. Hume juga mempersoalkan keberadaan Tuhan berdasarkan bukti.

  • 00:25:00 - 00:30:00

    Hume meneruskan ide-ide yang rumit tentang apa yang mengandungi objek, mencabar konsep 'esensi', dengan menegaskan bahawa apa yang kita tahu tentang sesuatu hanyalah ciri-ciri luarnya, tidak pernah mencapai inti atau esensinya.

  • 00:30:00 - 00:40:00

    Adam Smith memperkenalkan ekonomi perdagangan bebas dan teori 'tangan tak terlihat', di mana pasaran menentukan nilai berdasarkan permintaan dan penawaran. Dia menekankan pentingnya mengurangkan harga agar lebih ramai orang dapat mengakses dan membeli, seterusnya meningkatkan kemakmuran dalam masyarakat.

اعرض المزيد

الخريطة الذهنية

فيديو أسئلة وأجوبة

  • Apa itu Zaman Pencerahan?

    Zaman Pencerahan adalah periode ketika pemikiran kritis dan skeptisisme dihargai, menggantikan kepercayaan lama yang diterima tanpa pertanyaan.

  • Siapa Jordano Bruno?

    Jordano Bruno adalah seorang imam Katolik yang dihukum mati karena ide-ide ilmiahnya yang bertentangan dengan gereja.

  • Apa yang dipelajari David Hume?

    David Hume mendorong pemikiran skeptis dan empiris, menekankan pentingnya bukt i dalam memahami konsep-konsep seperti Tuhan.

  • Apa yang dikatakan Adam Smith tentang ekonomi?

    Adam Smith mengusulkan bahwa perdagangan bebas dan produksi massal dapat meningkatkan kekayaan dan kompleksitas dalam masyarakat.

  • Mengapa Galileo meninjau pandangannya tentang gerakan Bumi?

    Galileo melihat nasib Jordano Bruno dan menandatangani dokumen untuk menghindari hukuman mati, meskipun dia percaya Bumi bergerak.

  • Apa itu skeptisisme radikal?

    Skeptisisme radikal adalah pendekatan untuk mencari bukti yang mendalam untuk memverifikasi klaim, tidak hanya menerima informasi dari pihak lain.

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الترجمات
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التمرير التلقائي:
  • 00:00:02
    welcome to our 10th class of the
  • 00:00:04
    semester everyone 10th class Time sure
  • 00:00:08
    does fly Today we were going to talk
  • 00:00:10
    about the age of reason enlightenment
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    Why are we going to do that Well let me
  • 00:00:14
    explain why we're going to do that We're
  • 00:00:16
    doing this because up until now we've
  • 00:00:19
    been talking about the time before
  • 00:00:21
    science
  • 00:00:23
    Well we talked about Galileo pointing
  • 00:00:25
    the finger up but now in terms of our
  • 00:00:27
    chronology we're actually at the point
  • 00:00:29
    we're getting to the point
  • 00:00:31
    where he points his finger up and gives
  • 00:00:34
    us signs Galileo does that Remember that
  • 00:00:36
    Okay So what are we really saying Well
  • 00:00:39
    what we're saying is that before this we
  • 00:00:41
    were sort
  • 00:00:43
    of committed to simply learning what
  • 00:00:47
    other people in the past had learned So
  • 00:00:50
    it passed on from us from them to us and
  • 00:00:52
    from us to our children But the
  • 00:00:54
    knowledge didn't really change much The
  • 00:00:57
    reason the knowledge didn't really
  • 00:00:59
    change much is because we didn't really
  • 00:01:01
    do a lot of investigating We just
  • 00:01:03
    assumed that if they knew it was right
  • 00:01:05
    so we know it now and we think it's
  • 00:01:07
    right But then you'll remember from last
  • 00:01:09
    week's
  • 00:01:10
    class along comes Gutenberg and he gives
  • 00:01:14
    us printed press He allows us to read
  • 00:01:16
    for ourselves And that in because we
  • 00:01:18
    have now reading material it it
  • 00:01:20
    encourages us to read for ourselves
  • 00:01:22
    which meant we became more critical
  • 00:01:24
    thinkers We started to say hey our
  • 00:01:27
    parents and teachers and uh religious
  • 00:01:30
    leaders and government officials told us
  • 00:01:31
    this but when I read it I see something
  • 00:01:34
    differently I understand it differently
  • 00:01:36
    So that gave us this critical reasoning
  • 00:01:38
    ability that along with new technologies
  • 00:01:42
    like telescopes and microscopes and that
  • 00:01:44
    sort of thing gave us the ability to see
  • 00:01:46
    things in more depth clearly and get
  • 00:01:50
    closer to the truth When Galileo points
  • 00:01:53
    that finger up and he tells us that hey
  • 00:01:56
    the earth moves around the sun
  • 00:02:00
    who everyone goes wow this is incredible
  • 00:02:04
    It turns out that what people have been
  • 00:02:05
    telling us in the past hasn't been right
  • 00:02:07
    Therefore they might still be telling us
  • 00:02:09
    things that aren't right This doesn't
  • 00:02:11
    mean they were bad in the past They just
  • 00:02:13
    didn't know as much So this ushers in
  • 00:02:16
    what we today call the
  • 00:02:19
    enlightenment the age of reason Now what
  • 00:02:22
    do we mean by enlightenment Well you
  • 00:02:23
    remember John Newton the guy who used to
  • 00:02:27
    bring the slaves from Africa all the way
  • 00:02:30
    to the Americas He
  • 00:02:35
    thought he was doing the right thing But
  • 00:02:37
    then one day his consciousness got
  • 00:02:40
    raised He started to say "Hey maybe I'm
  • 00:02:43
    wrong in what I'm doing." And he changed
  • 00:02:47
    his idea And he wrote that beautiful
  • 00:02:50
    poem which we now sing it as a song
  • 00:02:52
    called Amazing Grace He said "I once was
  • 00:02:56
    blas was blind but now I
  • 00:03:01
    see I once was blind but now I see
  • 00:03:05
    Couldn't
  • 00:03:06
    see now I can see
  • 00:03:11
    Enlightenment So that's what we're
  • 00:03:13
    talking about The ability to see things
  • 00:03:15
    beyond what we've been taught before Now
  • 00:03:18
    just to remind you things were not very
  • 00:03:21
    good for critical thinkers in the past
  • 00:03:25
    before
  • 00:03:26
    Galileo people used to get killed for
  • 00:03:29
    thinking things that were not um
  • 00:03:32
    believed at that time So let's take a
  • 00:03:34
    look at the case of Jordano Bruno just
  • 00:03:36
    to give you an
  • 00:03:38
    example Here's Jordan
  • 00:03:40
    Bruno He was a Catholic
  • 00:03:43
    priest and he was religious He believed
  • 00:03:47
    all the things that the religious people
  • 00:03:49
    believed the the the Christian in this
  • 00:03:51
    case it would have been Catholic
  • 00:03:52
    Christian believed but he had an
  • 00:03:56
    inquisitive mind and he kept looking at
  • 00:03:58
    the stars at night and he said you know
  • 00:04:00
    those stars kind of look now remember he
  • 00:04:03
    didn't have telescope either so he's
  • 00:04:05
    just looking with his eyes he said those
  • 00:04:07
    stars look kind of like our sun only in
  • 00:04:09
    miniature and he said you know maybe
  • 00:04:11
    those stars are like our sun that's all
  • 00:04:16
    he just came up with the idea he didn't
  • 00:04:18
    know if he was right or on But he came
  • 00:04:19
    up with the idea And then he said "And
  • 00:04:22
    if we on Earth live close to our sun
  • 00:04:26
    maybe there are other planets out there
  • 00:04:29
    close to those suns those
  • 00:04:32
    stars." And finally he said "If we're
  • 00:04:35
    living on one of these planets now close
  • 00:04:38
    to a sun maybe there are other creatures
  • 00:04:41
    or beings or people living on those
  • 00:04:43
    planets close to a sun." This was his
  • 00:04:45
    idea and this is what it would look like
  • 00:04:48
    He said "I believe there are innumerable
  • 00:04:52
    sons
  • 00:04:53
    exist Innu innumerable earths revolve
  • 00:04:56
    around these and living beings inhabit
  • 00:04:59
    these worlds Okay Well today we know
  • 00:05:03
    that those suns do exist and they are
  • 00:05:06
    stars Well we call them stars now but
  • 00:05:08
    our sun is a star So he was right He was
  • 00:05:11
    completely right on number one What
  • 00:05:13
    about number two There are earths
  • 00:05:16
    revolving around these suns Well guess
  • 00:05:18
    what We've now found many many many
  • 00:05:22
    exoplanets That's what we call planets
  • 00:05:25
    that orbit other suns So he was right
  • 00:05:28
    Two out of three And the last thing he
  • 00:05:30
    said was living beings inhabit these
  • 00:05:32
    worlds H we haven't figured that one out
  • 00:05:36
    yet So was he right We don't know
  • 00:05:39
    Science has never fig been able to see
  • 00:05:43
    um or or have evidence of any living
  • 00:05:46
    creatures outside of Earth Does that
  • 00:05:48
    mean they're not there No It just means
  • 00:05:51
    we haven't seen them yet But does that
  • 00:05:53
    mean they're there No Maybe we're the
  • 00:05:55
    only ones Point is Jordano Bruno was
  • 00:05:59
    right about number one right about
  • 00:06:00
    number two and maybe right about number
  • 00:06:03
    three That's pretty good for a guy
  • 00:06:06
    without
  • 00:06:07
    telescope So what happened to him He got
  • 00:06:10
    called to the church and he was put on
  • 00:06:13
    trial for having ideas that were against
  • 00:06:16
    the church's
  • 00:06:19
    ideas He was
  • 00:06:22
    convicted tied to a
  • 00:06:24
    stake and burned while he was
  • 00:06:29
    alive Yep That's what they did to him
  • 00:06:33
    Why Because he thought differently than
  • 00:06:36
    them
  • 00:06:38
    This is what was going on before the
  • 00:06:40
    Enlightenment You were forced to think
  • 00:06:43
    exactly like people that came before
  • 00:06:48
    you Today if you go to Rome you can
  • 00:06:51
    actually stand and on the spot you can
  • 00:06:54
    actually sit on the spot have a coffee
  • 00:06:55
    sitting here where they burned him And
  • 00:06:58
    now there's a statue of him And it kind
  • 00:07:01
    of reminds us that oops we should be a
  • 00:07:03
    little bit more careful about who we
  • 00:07:05
    convict
  • 00:07:08
    And just to remind you even further the
  • 00:07:10
    same thing almost happened about 30
  • 00:07:12
    years later to
  • 00:07:15
    Galileo Only Galileo knew what happened
  • 00:07:17
    to Jordano Bruno So he agreed to sign
  • 00:07:20
    the document saying the earth does not
  • 00:07:23
    move But remember what he said after he
  • 00:07:26
    signed it He turned and he
  • 00:07:28
    saidimova and yet it
  • 00:07:31
    moves He knew it moved He knew the earth
  • 00:07:35
    moved but he didn't want to get killed
  • 00:07:36
    like uh Jordano Bruno So this is what
  • 00:07:40
    was happening before Galileo After
  • 00:07:43
    Galileo you get more and more people
  • 00:07:46
    thinking critically looking for
  • 00:07:49
    themselves engaging in empiricism and
  • 00:07:52
    that gives us an incredible amount of
  • 00:07:54
    knowledge particularly when it comes to
  • 00:07:57
    this thing we call philosophy It gave us
  • 00:08:00
    the
  • 00:08:01
    enlightenment Here is an example of the
  • 00:08:04
    enlightenment that happened in
  • 00:08:06
    Scotland It happened all over Europe but
  • 00:08:10
    in Scotland there was a quite a few
  • 00:08:12
    people there that were doing this kind
  • 00:08:13
    of work So it's a little bit more famous
  • 00:08:16
    The Scottish Enlightenment in
  • 00:08:18
    Edinburgh
  • 00:08:20
    Well what does it mean this
  • 00:08:24
    Enlightenment You see
  • 00:08:26
    traditionally before the Enlightenment
  • 00:08:28
    you weren't supposed to be skeptical You
  • 00:08:30
    were just supposed to take what your
  • 00:08:32
    teachers told you and believed it But
  • 00:08:34
    with the enlightenment comes the rise of
  • 00:08:37
    skepticism Now skepticism doesn't mean
  • 00:08:40
    you don't believe No it just says "Oh
  • 00:08:42
    wait a minute here This person is
  • 00:08:44
    telling me this thing Let me see for
  • 00:08:46
    myself." I'm not saying you're wrong I
  • 00:08:49
    just want to check it out for
  • 00:08:53
    myself Okay So for
  • 00:08:56
    example if Klein goes to buy a
  • 00:08:59
    car and I say "Clle that kind of car is
  • 00:09:04
    a good
  • 00:09:05
    car." Okay he has no reason to believe
  • 00:09:08
    that I'm lying Maybe I'm telling the
  • 00:09:10
    truth But Klein will probably say "Let
  • 00:09:13
    me go look at it
  • 00:09:15
    myself Am I comfortable with when I sit
  • 00:09:18
    in it Do I like the color Do I um um uh
  • 00:09:24
    does does the motor look like the kind
  • 00:09:26
    of motor that I want Does it take too
  • 00:09:28
    much gas He's gonna even though I said
  • 00:09:30
    it's a good car he want he's probably
  • 00:09:33
    going to be skeptical about it See this
  • 00:09:35
    is something people didn't do long ago
  • 00:09:37
    before the Enlightenment They just
  • 00:09:39
    accepted what their elders told
  • 00:09:43
    them Now you've got this rise of
  • 00:09:46
    skepticism Let me see it for myself
  • 00:09:49
    Another term for this is
  • 00:09:53
    empiricism You can only learn something
  • 00:09:56
    if you examine it
  • 00:09:58
    yourself
  • 00:10:00
    Empiricism Okay In Scotland you might
  • 00:10:04
    remember that there was this guy named
  • 00:10:06
    James Hutton running around Do you
  • 00:10:09
    remember
  • 00:10:10
    him He was the guy who was the father of
  • 00:10:13
    geology He was the one that realized
  • 00:10:16
    that the earth is more than 6,000 years
  • 00:10:18
    old He focused on
  • 00:10:21
    rocks but he hung around with a group of
  • 00:10:24
    a whole bunch of other people all pretty
  • 00:10:26
    smart people and they used to talk about
  • 00:10:28
    their interests So he taught them about
  • 00:10:30
    geology but other people taught them
  • 00:10:32
    about philosophy or economics or
  • 00:10:35
    engineering all the stuff they were
  • 00:10:36
    interested
  • 00:10:38
    in So Hutton was a member of the
  • 00:10:40
    Scottish Enlightenment His friend was a
  • 00:10:43
    guy named David Hume Now Hume was he
  • 00:10:47
    listened about geology and he listened
  • 00:10:49
    about engineering but his expertise was
  • 00:10:52
    philosophy He was a
  • 00:10:55
    thinker Now he became so famous
  • 00:10:58
    worldwide because of his ideas that now
  • 00:11:00
    you can see statues of
  • 00:11:04
    them When you go to Edinburgh you can
  • 00:11:08
    touch his toe like everyone else does
  • 00:11:09
    there It's supposed to be good luck
  • 00:11:13
    Okay Well what did Hume teach us Well
  • 00:11:17
    this gets kind of complicated So put on
  • 00:11:20
    your seat belts because this gets a
  • 00:11:21
    little bit
  • 00:11:23
    strange He said we need to be skeptical
  • 00:11:26
    of what people tell us But not just
  • 00:11:28
    skeptical we need to go to the root of
  • 00:11:32
    it Radical skepticism The word radical
  • 00:11:36
    means to get to the root of So if you
  • 00:11:39
    know to speak a um a Latin based
  • 00:11:41
    language um you'll know that uh uh
  • 00:11:45
    radicha well even in English uh
  • 00:11:49
    radish what is r a d radish it means
  • 00:11:52
    root so that's why we call a radish um
  • 00:11:56
    what we do because it means the root and
  • 00:11:59
    we eat the roots radish is a root okay
  • 00:12:02
    so going to the root of it you don't
  • 00:12:04
    just want to paul client doesn't want to
  • 00:12:07
    just hear me say yes it's a good car
  • 00:12:09
    Klein's going to want to go to the car
  • 00:12:11
    and look at it himself Get to the root
  • 00:12:14
    of it Do I really like this Okay he be
  • 00:12:17
    he's an
  • 00:12:18
    empiricist He knows that only seeing it
  • 00:12:21
    for himself will bring bring him closer
  • 00:12:23
    to understanding if the car is good for
  • 00:12:25
    him Okay so that's what Hume tried to do
  • 00:12:28
    with all the big issues And boy did he
  • 00:12:29
    take on the big issues For example he
  • 00:12:31
    took on is God real Does God exist Do
  • 00:12:36
    the gods exist
  • 00:12:39
    So what does he do He looks for evidence
  • 00:12:42
    of God Why Because he wants to be
  • 00:12:45
    radically
  • 00:12:47
    skeptical Someone else would say to him
  • 00:12:49
    "Oh yes no God exists." And he say "Okay
  • 00:12:50
    fine Let me find it for myself." He's an
  • 00:12:55
    empiricist He wants to see or hear or
  • 00:12:59
    touch or smell some sort of evidence for
  • 00:13:03
    God Okay And you can probably guess what
  • 00:13:06
    happened He didn't come up with anything
  • 00:13:10
    He received no sense
  • 00:13:13
    data There's no sense data for God he
  • 00:13:16
    said So therefore I can't say anything
  • 00:13:20
    about it If people said to him what do
  • 00:13:24
    you think of God He would say well
  • 00:13:25
    there's nothing I can say because
  • 00:13:27
    there's no evidence upon the base it
  • 00:13:32
    So theism means God belief in gods
  • 00:13:37
    Atheism means there's nothing that can
  • 00:13:39
    be said about God I can't find God So he
  • 00:13:43
    said "I am an
  • 00:13:45
    atheist Nothing that can be said about
  • 00:13:48
    God." Okay
  • 00:13:51
    Now because there was nothing that he
  • 00:13:54
    could he could base his understanding of
  • 00:13:56
    God on people said "Well what do you
  • 00:13:59
    believe God is there?" He said "No I
  • 00:14:01
    don't believe God is there because
  • 00:14:02
    there's nothing I can base on him but
  • 00:14:04
    ultimately I don't know." Okay I might
  • 00:14:07
    not believe it's there but I don't know
  • 00:14:09
    for sure Nobody knows for sure because
  • 00:14:11
    we can't see taste or measure or get any
  • 00:14:14
    sense data from God
  • 00:14:19
    Okay he took it even
  • 00:14:21
    further and he says you know it's very
  • 00:14:24
    very hard for me to really understand
  • 00:14:27
    what objects are
  • 00:14:29
    either because I can't really find an
  • 00:14:33
    object Now let me
  • 00:14:36
    explain So if you're looking at the
  • 00:14:39
    screen right now you'll see that I have
  • 00:14:42
    Anyone want to guess what this is
  • 00:14:46
    An apple
  • 00:14:49
    Christian that was beautifully
  • 00:14:52
    said An apple It's clearly an apple
  • 00:14:56
    Right
  • 00:14:56
    Christian Okay
  • 00:15:00
    so describe apple to me Define it to me
  • 00:15:04
    Explain to me what apple
  • 00:15:07
    is Write it down or unmute
  • 00:15:15
    Describe Apple
  • 00:15:26
    Can you write down any Go on Christian I
  • 00:15:28
    was going to say I'm thinking about it
  • 00:15:29
    because I feel like there's going to be
  • 00:15:31
    a trick coming
  • 00:15:33
    There's no trick Um but the way I would
  • 00:15:36
    do it is I would say it's it's a red
  • 00:15:38
    fruit uh that's round that grows from
  • 00:15:41
    trees It has seeds inside and a core
  • 00:15:44
    that you don't eat So you eat around
  • 00:15:46
    that Uh they're usually depending on
  • 00:15:49
    what you get either sweet some can be a
  • 00:15:52
    little bitter uh they're juicy when you
  • 00:15:54
    bite into
  • 00:15:57
    them Wow that was great Christian Okay
  • 00:16:01
    but Christian exactly Applause Christian
  • 00:16:04
    You're gonna have to help me remember
  • 00:16:05
    because you said so many things that I'm
  • 00:16:06
    going to forget some of them Okay All
  • 00:16:08
    right
  • 00:16:10
    So what Hume would say is Christian Okay
  • 00:16:15
    good What you've done is you've given me
  • 00:16:19
    words or fe that are features of the
  • 00:16:23
    apple Redness is a feature Sweetness
  • 00:16:28
    juiciness I think you said crunchiness
  • 00:16:30
    I'm not sure are features The fact that
  • 00:16:33
    there are seeds inside is a feature of
  • 00:16:35
    the apple In other words the apple these
  • 00:16:38
    things describe the apple It's almost
  • 00:16:39
    like putting labels on
  • 00:16:41
    it But have we really gotten close to
  • 00:16:45
    understanding the essence of
  • 00:16:49
    apple What is
  • 00:16:57
    appleness Here's where Christian is
  • 00:16:59
    thinking I knew there was a trick It's
  • 00:17:02
    not really a trick He's just saying
  • 00:17:03
    "Help me get closer to
  • 00:17:08
    appleness instead of just these labels."
  • 00:17:11
    The labels were accurate Can anyone try
  • 00:17:15
    Christian do you want to unmute and see
  • 00:17:16
    if you can
  • 00:17:22
    Um as this is the class about science I
  • 00:17:26
    would say perhaps delving into the which
  • 00:17:30
    I don't personally know but the chemical
  • 00:17:33
    makeup of what an apple is what makes an
  • 00:17:35
    apple an apple
  • 00:17:38
    Beautiful So you're going down to the to
  • 00:17:40
    the molecules to the atoms and all that
  • 00:17:42
    kind of stuff right Christian So what
  • 00:17:45
    you're saying is okay redness is sort of
  • 00:17:48
    an exterior feature Sweetness is a
  • 00:17:50
    little bit you know it's a little bit
  • 00:17:52
    broad but if I get deeper and deeper and
  • 00:17:53
    deeper then Hume will be happy right
  • 00:17:56
    well Hume didn't know about those things
  • 00:17:58
    either because this was way before we
  • 00:18:00
    knew about all these little these
  • 00:18:02
    details but he still would say yeah but
  • 00:18:06
    these are just
  • 00:18:08
    features of the apple In other words you
  • 00:18:11
    cannot get an
  • 00:18:16
    appl Okay I know this sounds weird Now
  • 00:18:20
    Christian said this is a class on on
  • 00:18:21
    science I know I understand why you said
  • 00:18:24
    that but in this particular moment we're
  • 00:18:26
    talking about philosophy And philosophy
  • 00:18:28
    has the tendency to blow people's minds
  • 00:18:30
    because you go "Oh this is so
  • 00:18:31
    complicated in your brain." All right
  • 00:18:37
    So let me give you another example that
  • 00:18:40
    will really make you feel weird
  • 00:18:43
    Okay I'll use me
  • 00:18:45
    because what the heck I'm
  • 00:18:48
    safer I I'm I've done this enough now so
  • 00:18:52
    it doesn't doesn't uh freak me out so
  • 00:18:54
    much Okay If I asked
  • 00:18:59
    you to help explain Gus what is Gus
  • 00:19:05
    In other words who am
  • 00:19:09
    I
  • 00:19:10
    Ashwin David you're pretty good at being
  • 00:19:13
    funny Jackie
  • 00:19:15
    Chan I wish I was Jackie Chan I have no
  • 00:19:18
    idea why you said I'm Jackie Chan but I
  • 00:19:20
    wish I was Jackie
  • 00:19:21
    [Laughter]
  • 00:19:23
    Chan I'd love to be able to do all those
  • 00:19:26
    moves
  • 00:19:33
    anyone Oh I see there's a movie called
  • 00:19:36
    Who Am I I didn't know that
  • 00:19:40
    Okay
  • 00:19:42
    Okay All right Christian you want to
  • 00:19:44
    take a stab at
  • 00:19:46
    it Dylan Karen Paul
  • 00:19:53
    anyone Oh the collector Oh I see So
  • 00:19:55
    Ashwin is saying "I'm a collector
  • 00:19:58
    Someone who collects things." Okay true
  • 00:20:00
    I'm a person Yeah Nick Even though
  • 00:20:03
    sometimes I don't feel
  • 00:20:05
    human I think Nick is right I'm a person
  • 00:20:08
    Okay good So what
  • 00:20:13
    else I'm a teacher right Would you agree
  • 00:20:18
    with that Nick I hope you
  • 00:20:20
    do Okay Um uh a stone breaker You guys
  • 00:20:26
    are being funny Okay Excellent All these
  • 00:20:30
    things are example You could also say
  • 00:20:32
    I'm a husband I'm a grandfather I'm a
  • 00:20:35
    father Okay All these kind of things
  • 00:20:37
    that I
  • 00:20:40
    am But Hume would say "No you're not
  • 00:20:44
    really getting to dustness What you're
  • 00:20:46
    getting at is
  • 00:20:48
    labels A man a
  • 00:20:51
    collector a complex system of molecules
  • 00:20:54
    and stardust Absolutely You're being
  • 00:20:57
    more detailed now than the rest of us
  • 00:20:59
    David This is what Christian tried to do
  • 00:21:01
    with the apple Exactly what you're
  • 00:21:02
    trying to do now Molecules and stardust
  • 00:21:05
    Absolutely But when we get right down to
  • 00:21:08
    gustness because if you were to take
  • 00:21:10
    those dust particles apart the gust
  • 00:21:12
    doesn't exist If you take the molecules
  • 00:21:14
    apart gust doesn't exist We're trying to
  • 00:21:16
    get at gustness This thing that makes me
  • 00:21:20
    me Hume said we
  • 00:21:23
    can't can't get there
  • 00:21:27
    Well you see Nick Hume would say "No
  • 00:21:30
    there's no such
  • 00:21:32
    thing." Beautiful question
  • 00:21:35
    Nick So if there's no such thing as
  • 00:21:39
    gustness okay all we could do is say
  • 00:21:42
    features of gustness including very
  • 00:21:45
    detailed features like carbon and uh
  • 00:21:48
    molecules What What else did David say
  • 00:21:50
    Complex system of stardust all that kind
  • 00:21:52
    of stuff Absolutely true But that
  • 00:21:55
    doesn't get us close to understanding
  • 00:21:59
    dustness It gets us close to
  • 00:22:01
    understanding what makes up Gus but not
  • 00:22:04
    the whole
  • 00:22:09
    thing So Christian says I would only
  • 00:22:12
    call appleness or gustness as features
  • 00:22:14
    of other things Oh I see What you're
  • 00:22:16
    doing is you're reversing it Christian
  • 00:22:18
    Oh that's interesting Yeah
  • 00:22:20
    like I would if you were describing a
  • 00:22:23
    pair you know it's apple like you can
  • 00:22:25
    use appleness you can't use appleness as
  • 00:22:29
    a feature or descriptor of an apple
  • 00:22:32
    itself like there appeness doesn't exist
  • 00:22:35
    gustness doesn't exist Christianness
  • 00:22:37
    doesn't exist for the thing that it is
  • 00:22:43
    but I could say um uh oh uh like Someone
  • 00:22:49
    in here has mentioned Gus is Jackie Chan
  • 00:22:52
    I did karate for a little bit so I could
  • 00:22:56
    relate that like oh if Gus is Jackie
  • 00:22:59
    Chan that's a little bit of
  • 00:23:01
    Christianness because I also did martial
  • 00:23:03
    arts We we we share those features
  • 00:23:06
    Christian and I
  • 00:23:07
    right Beautiful So another way of saying
  • 00:23:10
    is Christian is male I'm male We share
  • 00:23:14
    those but we're not the same
  • 00:23:19
    We have features of each others in us
  • 00:23:21
    Okay this is really cool Christian Um
  • 00:23:23
    have you ever taken philosophy Christian
  • 00:23:24
    because that would you you um I've I've
  • 00:23:28
    not but I've had friends uh a lot of my
  • 00:23:31
    friends did through high school Um so I
  • 00:23:34
    was at the center of many uh many
  • 00:23:37
    conversations in which they just kind of
  • 00:23:40
    I I was uh what they called the rubber
  • 00:23:43
    ducky you know I just kind of sat there
  • 00:23:44
    and they talked at me and then I just
  • 00:23:46
    gave opinions when needed Excellent Well
  • 00:23:49
    it it served you well because you see
  • 00:23:51
    your mind is thinking
  • 00:23:53
    philosophically Okay Beautiful Aman says
  • 00:23:56
    his brain is not braining now So that's
  • 00:23:58
    perfect Aman that shows us that you're
  • 00:24:00
    engaging in philosophical thought
  • 00:24:03
    Because that's what really engaging
  • 00:24:05
    deeply in philosophy does is it is it to
  • 00:24:08
    use your beautiful wording It stops your
  • 00:24:10
    brain from
  • 00:24:11
    [Laughter]
  • 00:24:13
    braining So Joyce says you can't
  • 00:24:16
    experience gust You can't get gustness
  • 00:24:19
    until you experience him
  • 00:24:22
    Okay Is it possible to experience
  • 00:24:25
    gustness So is it possible to experience
  • 00:24:28
    the apple Well we can eat it So then we
  • 00:24:32
    can add taste to
  • 00:24:34
    it But do we really get to the apple All
  • 00:24:37
    right I think we've pretty well gotten
  • 00:24:39
    to what Hume is trying to say Basically
  • 00:24:42
    he's trying to say that uh what
  • 00:24:44
    Christian already said
  • 00:24:46
    before Christian Gus
  • 00:24:50
    Apple don't
  • 00:24:53
    exist You can't get at it All we can do
  • 00:24:58
    is get at features of it Now if we were
  • 00:25:02
    to
  • 00:25:03
    use David's idea a complex system then
  • 00:25:08
    we put all those things together complex
  • 00:25:10
    system all those features together and
  • 00:25:13
    we say "Oh there it is There it is
  • 00:25:14
    There's Apple There it is There it is
  • 00:25:16
    There's Gus There's Christian There's
  • 00:25:18
    whoever." Yes But it requires this
  • 00:25:22
    coming together of all these features
  • 00:25:25
    But you never really have a one whole
  • 00:25:31
    Christian Wow So Hume is not just a
  • 00:25:36
    theist Can't say anything about God He's
  • 00:25:38
    also saying he's a
  • 00:25:41
    appleist Again not to say that the apple
  • 00:25:44
    doesn't exist in real life Of course I
  • 00:25:46
    can feel it But he's saying we can't get
  • 00:25:49
    to a full complete understanding of it
  • 00:25:53
    We can't get to its essence It lacks
  • 00:25:57
    essence
  • 00:25:58
    Wow I want to remind you that we talked
  • 00:26:02
    a couple of weeks ago about how some of
  • 00:26:05
    the early
  • 00:26:06
    Dowists philosophers and some of the and
  • 00:26:09
    what the Buddha said that there is no
  • 00:26:13
    such thing as a self
  • 00:26:17
    And I also explained that science seems
  • 00:26:19
    to be supporting the idea that there's
  • 00:26:21
    no self We don't know 100% yet but we're
  • 00:26:24
    trying to do experiments and we can't
  • 00:26:25
    find the self Well Hume came up with the
  • 00:26:29
    same
  • 00:26:31
    idea 2,000 years after the
  • 00:26:34
    Buddha He was a little late to the party
  • 00:26:37
    but he got there And 300 years before
  • 00:26:40
    science is really trying
  • 00:26:42
    to And they all seem to be saying the
  • 00:26:45
    same thing Now again does this mean you
  • 00:26:48
    don't exist Well no It's you know the
  • 00:26:51
    apple does exist here Okay What we're
  • 00:26:55
    meaning philosophically it the essence
  • 00:26:57
    is not there There's nothing that makes
  • 00:26:59
    an apple It's just this complex system
  • 00:27:01
    of things coming together that creates
  • 00:27:04
    this apple Kind of like you might
  • 00:27:06
    remember the story or the analogy I gave
  • 00:27:08
    you about Niagara Falls Niagara Falls we
  • 00:27:12
    see it as one thing but you can also say
  • 00:27:15
    it's billions and billions of drops of
  • 00:27:18
    water falling over and then it appears
  • 00:27:20
    as one thing Or the other analogy I gave
  • 00:27:23
    you was a cartoon If you look at one
  • 00:27:27
    cartoon slide at a time it's not alive
  • 00:27:30
    When you move it very quickly you flip
  • 00:27:33
    the book quickly or you run the tape
  • 00:27:35
    quickly or the digit
  • 00:27:37
    digital whatever program quickly then
  • 00:27:40
    the cartoons appear to be
  • 00:27:43
    alive So selfness
  • 00:27:47
    appleness godness seem to appear
  • 00:27:50
    according to Hume um once we put the
  • 00:27:54
    complex system
  • 00:27:56
    together Wow Does that help your brain
  • 00:28:00
    start braining Amen Amen I don't know if
  • 00:28:02
    it does
  • 00:28:03
    but it's hard It's hard to get our
  • 00:28:05
    brains around
  • 00:28:09
    this
  • 00:28:12
    Okay See I love it when you say things
  • 00:28:14
    like that because to me that shows me
  • 00:28:16
    that you're getting it because if
  • 00:28:18
    students just say "Yep no problem No
  • 00:28:20
    problem." Then I go "Are you really
  • 00:28:21
    thinking?" Because if you're really
  • 00:28:22
    thinking about this it's not easy
  • 00:28:26
    So
  • 00:28:29
    okay David Hume one of the enlightenment
  • 00:28:32
    people you can see how he is not just
  • 00:28:35
    relying on how what people told him in
  • 00:28:37
    the
  • 00:28:38
    past He's saying "Nope I want to see it
  • 00:28:41
    for myself." Other people would say "Oh
  • 00:28:43
    that's an apple." Simple Okay Then along
  • 00:28:47
    comes this guy Adam Smith Now if any of
  • 00:28:50
    you are taking business or have you
  • 00:28:53
    taken any course on economics you
  • 00:28:55
    probably know this guy Has anyone heard
  • 00:28:57
    of him
  • 00:29:00
    before Well he hung
  • 00:29:02
    around David Hume father of economics
  • 00:29:06
    right Okay He hung around David Hume and
  • 00:29:12
    um James Hutton and James
  • 00:29:15
    Watts All these brilliant people all in
  • 00:29:18
    the same place all at the same time They
  • 00:29:20
    encouraged each other and we end up
  • 00:29:22
    getting incredible ideas from them The
  • 00:29:25
    enlightenment But what did Adam Smith do
  • 00:29:28
    He said "I want to help the world get
  • 00:29:31
    more stuff." Why more stuff Because
  • 00:29:35
    stuff money wealth equals energy which
  • 00:29:39
    allows complexity to
  • 00:29:42
    emerge It's what we've been talking
  • 00:29:43
    about the whole semester In order for
  • 00:29:45
    complexity to emerge to in order for
  • 00:29:48
    complexity to emerge you need energy to
  • 00:29:51
    go into a system within the Goldilocks
  • 00:29:54
    conditions Not too much not too little
  • 00:29:57
    So Adam Smith said "How do we increase
  • 00:30:02
    complexity?" Not his words he used
  • 00:30:04
    different words but how do we bring in
  • 00:30:06
    more complexity Well we got to bring in
  • 00:30:07
    more energy How do we do that Bring in
  • 00:30:09
    more money create wealth So he wrote a
  • 00:30:12
    famous book called The Wealth of Nations
  • 00:30:15
    And in it he says we have to encourage
  • 00:30:17
    people to trade because when they trade
  • 00:30:20
    they make
  • 00:30:21
    money If I sell you something now I sell
  • 00:30:25
    you something I don't need and I make
  • 00:30:27
    money I can use that money then to do
  • 00:30:29
    something else Make more money and you
  • 00:30:31
    can use what I sold you to make more
  • 00:30:33
    money because maybe you needed one of
  • 00:30:35
    those So it's a win-win proposition just
  • 00:30:38
    like we saw last week when we talked
  • 00:30:40
    about the Silk
  • 00:30:43
    Roads But how do you make money Well he
  • 00:30:47
    said you have to allow people to
  • 00:30:49
    trade
  • 00:30:51
    freely So I should be allowed to trade
  • 00:30:53
    with Colin when Colin should be allowed
  • 00:30:55
    to trade with Erica freely But we all
  • 00:30:58
    live in Canada now Well we should be
  • 00:31:00
    able to trade with people from other
  • 00:31:02
    countries too The more trade we can do
  • 00:31:05
    the better This you might heard as being
  • 00:31:08
    labeled as free
  • 00:31:10
    trade Don't restrict trade Don't say no
  • 00:31:13
    you can't trade with those
  • 00:31:15
    people because you lessen people's
  • 00:31:18
    ability to make wealth Okay So he wanted
  • 00:31:22
    free
  • 00:31:24
    trade Okay That's one thing he wanted
  • 00:31:27
    The other thing he did was he said "We
  • 00:31:30
    have to figure out how to make things
  • 00:31:33
    cheaper so that more people can buy them
  • 00:31:37
    If I need a computer but it costs
  • 00:31:40
    $20,000 I can't buy it So then I can't
  • 00:31:43
    do a job that it requires a computer so
  • 00:31:46
    I'm making less money But if the
  • 00:31:49
    computer was much cheaper let's say
  • 00:31:51
    $1,000 then I can afford one and then I
  • 00:31:54
    can do a job make more money
  • 00:31:57
    The
  • 00:31:58
    more people have the tools they need in
  • 00:32:01
    order to make money the more wealth will
  • 00:32:03
    be created So we need to make things
  • 00:32:07
    cheaper But there's something else When
  • 00:32:10
    we sell things cheaper less expensive I
  • 00:32:13
    don't mean bad I mean less expensive
  • 00:32:15
    things more people can buy them and
  • 00:32:18
    ultimately we will make more money So
  • 00:32:20
    you might sell uh one computer for
  • 00:32:24
    $20,000 but if you sell computers for
  • 00:32:28
    $1,000 you might send sell um 200 of
  • 00:32:33
    them because more people are able to buy
  • 00:32:35
    them So ultimately you'll make more
  • 00:32:39
    money So he proposed his famous pin
  • 00:32:44
    factory Now I'm using computers because
  • 00:32:47
    that's kind of what we all need today
  • 00:32:49
    That was the tools we need
  • 00:32:50
    today Back then he used a pin just a
  • 00:32:53
    simple little pin you know like that you
  • 00:32:55
    would use to to
  • 00:32:57
    keep do some sewing Simple Stella thing
  • 00:33:01
    And he said when someone has to make a
  • 00:33:04
    pin they have to get some rocks with the
  • 00:33:07
    proper um u materials in it Then they
  • 00:33:11
    had
  • 00:33:12
    to separate those materials Then they
  • 00:33:15
    have to melt the the metallic materials
  • 00:33:18
    Then they have to uh cast it into a long
  • 00:33:22
    long
  • 00:33:23
    long
  • 00:33:25
    wire Then they have to once it cools
  • 00:33:28
    they have to straighten it out with a
  • 00:33:30
    hammer Bang bang bang bang to make it
  • 00:33:32
    nice and flat and straight Then someone
  • 00:33:35
    has to cut you know about 2 cm each to
  • 00:33:38
    make the size of the pins That's a lot
  • 00:33:41
    of cutting all day long Then they have
  • 00:33:43
    to sharpen one edge Then they have to
  • 00:33:45
    make the head on the other edge
  • 00:33:48
    the other end of
  • 00:33:50
    it That means at the end of the day a
  • 00:33:54
    person probably made only you know let's
  • 00:33:56
    just guess a hundred pins
  • 00:34:00
    But if you streamline it create a
  • 00:34:05
    factory a factory model okay an assembly
  • 00:34:09
    line
  • 00:34:11
    model and you say
  • 00:34:13
    "Okay Erica you make the
  • 00:34:17
    wire." Let's change that Erica you find
  • 00:34:20
    the rocks with the proper material Colin
  • 00:34:23
    you melt the rocks or you you melt the
  • 00:34:26
    material David you melt the wire Ariana
  • 00:34:29
    you um um straighten the wire Christian
  • 00:34:33
    you cut the wire Okay And then if we
  • 00:34:36
    keep going and going and
  • 00:34:38
    going you know Dylan um would uh sharpen
  • 00:34:42
    it And Karen would make the head and
  • 00:34:45
    then Paul he can put them in the
  • 00:34:48
    boxes Okay When we do that now what
  • 00:34:52
    happens is each person develops an
  • 00:34:54
    expertise for what they're doing Erica
  • 00:34:57
    becomes excellent at finding the
  • 00:34:59
    materials she needs in order to to
  • 00:35:02
    extract the metal from the rocks Colin
  • 00:35:05
    becomes an expert at running the furnace
  • 00:35:07
    to melt it and so on and so on and so on
  • 00:35:11
    Christian becomes an expert at at
  • 00:35:13
    sharpening He can do it in seconds Now
  • 00:35:16
    when you put all this together and you
  • 00:35:18
    just do it very uh
  • 00:35:20
    organized instead of one person making
  • 00:35:24
    100 pins now you can have six or seven
  • 00:35:27
    people whatever making thousands and
  • 00:35:29
    thousands and thousands of pins in one
  • 00:35:31
    day which means you can sell them for
  • 00:35:33
    much less which means more people can
  • 00:35:35
    buy them They can then use them to do
  • 00:35:38
    whatever they need to build more
  • 00:35:43
    wealth Okay
  • 00:35:45
    So you can see why Aman called Adam
  • 00:35:48
    Smith the father of economics He's
  • 00:35:50
    trying to figure out how to get more
  • 00:35:53
    money But then the question comes up
  • 00:35:55
    well how do you know how much the pin is
  • 00:35:57
    worth How do you know what the value of
  • 00:35:59
    it is And he said well okay chill out
  • 00:36:02
    Don't worry Because we have a free
  • 00:36:05
    market everyone is allowed to pay what
  • 00:36:08
    they want If they don't want to buy it
  • 00:36:10
    if they don't want to pay something they
  • 00:36:12
    don't buy it If they want to buy it they
  • 00:36:14
    can pay whatever It's up to them And the
  • 00:36:17
    sellers are allowed to sell it for
  • 00:36:19
    whatever they want So for example if I
  • 00:36:22
    go to buy a pin from David and David
  • 00:36:25
    tells me the pin costs $20 I'm going to
  • 00:36:27
    say "No I don't want to spend $20 on one
  • 00:36:30
    pin." No way So I won't buy it But if I
  • 00:36:34
    go to Colin and Colin says "Here's a pin
  • 00:36:36
    one penny." Okay I'll buy a pin for one
  • 00:36:39
    penny
  • 00:36:41
    In other words we will figure out the
  • 00:36:45
    cost of it He called this the invisible
  • 00:36:49
    hand The invisible hand of the market
  • 00:36:54
    There's no person saying here is the
  • 00:36:57
    price What the market is saying is when
  • 00:37:01
    everyone gets together you look at what
  • 00:37:03
    the majority of people are willing to
  • 00:37:06
    pay for this that becomes the price
  • 00:37:10
    In other words he talked about the the
  • 00:37:12
    notion of enlightened self-interest I am
  • 00:37:15
    going to do what's best for me $20 for
  • 00:37:18
    one pin is not best for
  • 00:37:22
    me One cent for a pin is best for me So
  • 00:37:25
    I'm going to go buy it from
  • 00:37:26
    Colin Now David is going to do what's
  • 00:37:29
    best for him So he says $20 per pin But
  • 00:37:31
    guess what He can't sell any So the next
  • 00:37:35
    day he tries 19 and then 18 and then 17
  • 00:37:39
    until finally he ends up at 1 cent per
  • 00:37:42
    pin Why Because Colin Col Colin has got
  • 00:37:45
    it at 1 cent The market has told David
  • 00:37:49
    what the price of pins
  • 00:37:55
    are No one should start telling David
  • 00:37:58
    "No no no no You're not allowed to sell
  • 00:38:01
    the pin for $20." Fine Let him try If he
  • 00:38:04
    can get it good for
  • 00:38:06
    him No one should tell Colin "No you
  • 00:38:09
    can't raise your price from 1 cent to
  • 00:38:10
    two." It should be their choice Just
  • 00:38:14
    like no one could tell me what I'm
  • 00:38:15
    willing to pay for it This is called
  • 00:38:18
    lazair or basically chill Do what you
  • 00:38:21
    want Okay Everyone do their own thing
  • 00:38:24
    The government should not try to get
  • 00:38:28
    involved Stay out of their business
  • 00:38:32
    There are some exceptions to that but
  • 00:38:34
    generally the government should stay out
  • 00:38:36
    of the
  • 00:38:37
    business So here's a really simple
  • 00:38:39
    example This guy is going to buy a bread
  • 00:38:42
    and he sees that it's one pound and he's
  • 00:38:44
    about to take his money out of his
  • 00:38:45
    wallet but then he looks here It's 50p
  • 00:38:48
    That's half
  • 00:38:50
    price Half price for a bed for a bread
  • 00:38:54
    What's happening The invisible hand of
  • 00:38:56
    the market Remember there's no real hand
  • 00:38:59
    It's just that when what is everyone
  • 00:39:02
    willing to pay The invisible hand of the
  • 00:39:04
    market is pointing to the 50 cent 50p
  • 00:39:09
    bread So he probably will go buy this
  • 00:39:14
    bread So if you have a 100 people going
  • 00:39:17
    in to buy
  • 00:39:19
    bread let's just say 80 of the hundred
  • 00:39:22
    people say "No I don't want to pay
  • 00:39:24
    double for a bread I want to pay I want
  • 00:39:27
    this one." Now 20 might still buy this
  • 00:39:30
    one because they know him or they like
  • 00:39:32
    the taste or something Sure But the
  • 00:39:34
    majority of people are going to say
  • 00:39:36
    this They're going to buy the 50p So now
  • 00:39:40
    this guy only sells 20 breads the next
  • 00:39:43
    day and this guy sells
  • 00:39:46
    80 Is that enough to make this guy happy
  • 00:39:50
    In other words can he pay all his costs
  • 00:39:53
    and have enough money left over If so he
  • 00:39:55
    can sell he can keep selling it for 20
  • 00:39:57
    cent for uh
الوسوم
  • Zaman Pencerahan
  • Galileo
  • Jordano Bruno
  • David Hume
  • Adam Smith
  • pemikiran kritis
  • skeptisisme
  • empirisme
  • ekonomi
  • ilmu pengetahuan