Como nos Tornamos Humanos - Ep. 3/3 (Documentário-2009)

00:51:46
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQ3U_3HYE5s

Résumé

TLDRO vídeo explora a evolução dos Homo sapiens, que emergiram como a única espécie humana restante após substituir outras como os Neandertais. A partir de uma pequena população de 600 indivíduos, os Homo sapiens se adaptaram ao ambiente desafiador da África, desenvolvendo habilidades de caça, ferramentas e uma dieta variada que incluía alimentos do mar. Através de descobertas genéticas, aprendemos que a extinção dos Neandertais foi influenciada pela superioridade em tecnologia e adaptabilidade dos Homo sapiens. O estudo dos fósseis e das características genéticas também sugere que compartilhamos uma história comum com os Neandertais, revelando nuances sobre nossa capacidade de linguagem e desenvolvimento cultural.

A retenir

  • 🧬 A linhagem dos Homo sapiens deriva de uma pequena população de 600 indivíduos.
  • 🌍 Os Homo sapiens surgiram na África e se espalharam pelo mundo.
  • 🦴 Neandertais eram humanos avançados, mas foram substituídos.
  • 🔍 Descobertas arqueológicas revelam a complexidade da mente humana.
  • ⚒️ A tecnologia dos Homo sapiens superou a dos Neandertais, permitindo melhor sobrevivência.
  • 🌊 A dieta diversificada dos Homo sapiens incluía frutos do mar e caça.
  • 💡 O uso de ferramentas e a capacidade simbólica emergiram de mudanças culturais.
  • ❄️ Mudanças climáticas severas contribuíram para a evolução humana.
  • 💬 Neandertais provavelmente tinham a capacidade de se comunicar.
  • 🌱 Evolução cultural e genética interagem constantemente.

Chronologie

  • 00:00:00 - 00:05:00

    O documentário explora a evolução humana, destacando a transição dos primeiros hominídeos de um passado semelhante aos macacos até a espécie moderna, Homo sapiens. Apresenta uma linha do tempo que mostra a diversidade de ancestrais humanos ao longo de mais de seis milhões de anos, questionando o que nos tornou únicos e por que somos a única espécie humana restante.

  • 00:05:00 - 00:10:00

    Há 140.000 anos, o Homo sapiens enfrentou extinção em uma competição acirrada com outras espécies humanas, como os Neandertais. A inteligência e adaptação ao meio ambiente são enfatizadas, mostrando como os humanos modernos eventualmente se espalharam pelo mundo e substituíram essas outras espécies, que eram bem adaptadas em seu tempo.

  • 00:10:00 - 00:15:00

    O foco se volta para Homo erectus, reconhecido como o primeiro ancestral humano de corpo semelhante ao nosso, que começou a usar ferramentas e viver em grupos sociais. O estudo do fóssil de um jovem, chamado 'Turab Boy', sugere uma fase importante de nossa evolução, onde as bases do comportamento humano moderno começaram a surgir.

  • 00:15:00 - 00:20:00

    Em diferentes locais do mundo, Homo erectus e os primeiros humanos começam a se espalhar. Os restos de Homo heidelbergensis na Espanha oferecem insights sobre os primeiros humanos na Europa e implicações de comportamento simbólico e consciência, revelando uma rica vida social e cultural ao longo de meio milhão de anos.

  • 00:20:00 - 00:25:00

    A pesquisa no 'Poço de Ossos' revela muitas skeletons de Homo heidelbergensis, sugerindo rituais funerários primitivos e um nível de consciência que aponta para a origem da cultura humana. Isso leva a uma reavaliação da complexidade social e cognitiva dessa espécie.

  • 00:25:00 - 00:30:00

    Os Neandertais são apresentados como os 'primos' mais próximos dos modernos humanos, com discussões sobre suas semelhanças físicas e comportamentais. A descoberta de fósseis ajuda a explorar suas vidas, ritualização e habilidades cognitivas, desafiando preconceitos antigos de que eram brutos e primitivos.

  • 00:30:00 - 00:35:00

    Estudos de um jovem Neandertal questionam se sua inteligência era inferior à dos Homo sapiens. As investigações detalhadas de suas características cranianas e dietas revelam semelhanças e diferencias, desafiando noções preconcebidas sobre a capacidade intelectual Neandertal.

  • 00:35:00 - 00:40:00

    A pesquisa genética revela que os humanos modernos têm um ancestral comum com os Neandertais, o que implica em possíveis interações entre as espécies. Essa conexão é ressaltada pela análise de um gene crucial relacionado à linguagem, que compartilham, sugerindo semelhanças na comunicação.

  • 00:40:00 - 00:45:00

    Além do estudo dos fósseis, técnicas modernas em biologia e genética têm identificado como as populações humanas se diversificaram e quais adaptações ocorreram ao longo do tempo com base nas mudanças climáticas e migrações, revelando como as pressões ambientais moldaram o humano moderno.

  • 00:45:00 - 00:51:46

    Por fim, a interação da evolução cultural e genética é discutida, enfatizando que a cultura é uma adaptação humana singular que continua a evoluir, moldando nosso futuro mesmo em um mundo em rápida mudança. A reflexão final sugere que a evolução não está parada e que o futuro da espécie ainda está em desenvolvimento.

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Vidéo Q&R

  • Qual é a origem dos Homo sapiens?

    Os Homo sapiens descendem de uma pequena população de aproximadamente 600 indivíduos com origem na África.

  • O que causou a extinção dos Neandertais?

    Os Homo sapiens, com maior adaptabilidade e capacidade tecnológica, gradualmente substituíram os Neandertais em seu habitat.

  • Como os Homo sapiens se adaptaram ao seu ambiente?

    Nós utilizamos recursos de maneira intensiva e desenvolvemos tecnologias, como ferramentas especializadas e armas de arremesso.

  • Qual é a importância da genética na evolução humana?

    A pesquisa genética revela como temos pouco diversidade genética devido a um 'efeito gargalo', onde grandes populações diminuíram drasticamente.

  • Os Neandertais podiam falar?

    Evidências sugerem que os Neandertais possuíam a capacidade de falar, pois compartilham um gene relacionado à linguagem com os humanos modernos.

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    humans without a doubt the smartest
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    animal on earth yet we're unmistakably
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    tied to our AP
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    Origins millions of years ago we were
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    Apes living ape lives in
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    Africa so how did we get from
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    that to
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    this what
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    happened what set us on the path to
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    humanity the questions are huge but at
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    last there are
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    answers more than 6 million years ago we
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    took the first step to separate from the
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    Apes since then there have been at least
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    20 types of human ancestor in our family
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    tree some of them were on their way to
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    being us others were evolutionary dead
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    ends as recently as 50,000 years ago
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    there were probably four different kinds
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    of humans living at the same time yet
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    today we are a species
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    alone why did we survive and all the
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    others
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    disappear new discoveries are Shining
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    Light on the final stages of our
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    Evolution we're finding out where where
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    our species Homo sapiens came from the
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    genetic record shows us that all modern
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    humans are descended from a small
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    population of approximately 600 breeding
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    individuals and we are discovering how
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    they spread through the world pushing
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    out other ancient humans like the
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    Neanderthal neanderthals were very
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    successful humans they have lived in
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    Europe for maybe 300 400,000 years but
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    eventually they were replaced by modern
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    humans but why were they replaced by
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    modern humans The Mystery of the
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    Neanderthal disappearance is finally
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    being solved as the secrets of their
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    genetic code are
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    unlocked we're discovering exactly what
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    made them different from us and how
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    we're
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    unique so join us as we explore the
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    origins of our own species find out one
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    where the last humans standing right now
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    on Nova
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    [Music]
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    imagine a world with only a tiny number
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    of us in
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    it perhaps just a few thousand a
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    recently evolved species we are
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    completely at the mercy of the Natural
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    Forces around
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    us 140,000 years ago Homo sapiens
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    teetered on the brink of Extinction
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    new discoveries are revealing how from
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    these humble beginnings we took over the
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    planet eventually replacing other
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    ancient humans who were already living
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    there Homo erectus and the
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    Neanderthals humans have a very
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    intensive way of using the
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    environment humans move into the Middle
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    East the homorectus starts going
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    extinct when humans move into Europe the
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    Neanderthals go
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    for almost 400,000 years the
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    Neanderthals lived in Ice Age Europe
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    superb Hunters they had brains bigger
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    than ours and a record of survival twice
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    as
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    long they were the most advanced humans
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    on Earth until we
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    arve and then they
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    vanished
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    why finally we're unearthing the answers
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    the the remains of a 100,000 yearold
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    child are revealing what we had that
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    they didn't essential to figure out what
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    are the differences between the neand
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    and us to to figure out what is special
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    about us was it some new physical
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    ability or was it a new way of
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    thinking these questions go to the heart
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    of what makes us
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    human to answer them we must travel back
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    in time to the beginning of our human
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    story imagine the entire span of
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    recorded human history taking us back to
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    the Egyptian pyramids 5,000 years
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    ago double it 10,000 years ago when
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    plants were domesticated and agriculture
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    begins double it again to the time when
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    Ice Age Hunters paint stunning images on
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    Cave walls and keep doubling six more
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    times and we are finally entering the
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    world of homo erectus the remarkable
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    ancestor who pioneered what it means to
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    be
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    [Music]
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    human Homo erectus appeared on the
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    African plains almost 2 million years
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    ago they were the first ancestors who
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    had B bodies like ours they were hunter
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    gatherers and Tool
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    makers beings who lived in social
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    groups and cared for each
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    other the most famous Homo erectus is
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    the fossil called turab
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    [Music]
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    boy well tab boy and his ancestors they
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    represent a threshold they represent
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    that that point in our Evolution when we
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    were we weren't quite fully a human but
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    we were no longer an
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    ape paleo artist Victor deck specializes
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    in creating scientifically based
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    sculptures of ancient humans from their
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    fossil
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    remains as he reconstructs turab boy's
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    head aplike features
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    emerge heavy brow ridges a protruding
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    lower face
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    a skull still smaller than our
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    own but despite these differences turab
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    boy is definitely starting to look like
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    a human
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    being and behind those eyes his mind was
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    becoming human too I suspect that
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    complex feelings and and behaviors had
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    their Beginnings with tabo's kind and
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    that what it is to truly be a human
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    had its bubblings at that
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    point it was probably Homo erectus
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    almost 2 million years ago who first
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    started to leave
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    Africa ever since Africa has been the
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    engine of our
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    Evolution pumping out wave after wave
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    ancient humans who populated Europe and
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    Asia settling in far off places they
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    developed in their own special
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    Wes an early wave gave rise in Indonesia
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    to the extraordinary
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    Hobbit perhaps a type of dwarf Homo
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    erectus another wave took Homo erectus
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    all the way to China where fossil
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    remains have been dated to over
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    700,000 years
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    ago soon after another wave left Africa
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    this time heading for
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    Europe This was the species that would
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    one day give rise to the
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    Neanderthals ever since the first skull
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    was discovered in heidleberg Germany
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    they have been called homo
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    heidelbergensis but almost nothing was
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    known about them until one extraordinary
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    find was
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    made at aera in Northern
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    Spain these Rolling Hills have turned
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    out to be an archaeological goal
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    mine when a railway was built over a 100
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    years ago it cut right through the hills
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    archaeologists later discovered this had
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    exposed over a million years of ancient
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    human
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    habitation including the oldest human
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    remains in Europe
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    nearby on the crest of one of the hills
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    they also found the entrance to some
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    caves to explore them took years but it
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    has been worth
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    it they have discovered a Labyrinth of
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    Chambers and corridors reaching far
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    inside the
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    hills at the end of the labyrinth is one
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    of the most inaccessible archaeological
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    sites in the world a treasure Grove of
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    human fossils they call the pit of
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    [Music]
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    Bones this is the entrance to the whole
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    system the pit itself is very far from
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    here it is a long way and in some places
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    they have to
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    crawl it's a difficult place to
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    work today today it takes half an hour
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    of walking crawling and scrambling in
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    the dark to reach the 50-ft vertical
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    shaft that drops into the
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    pit but it took almost 10 years for the
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    sight to give up its
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    secrets we started to find a small
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    pieces of human bones difficult to
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    recognize at the beginning because they
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    were very
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    fragmentary but so many tiny fragments
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    made them think they were on to
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    something big even without talking each
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    other we started to think that maybe
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    there were down there
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    skeletons as bone after bone came out of
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    the pit they realized they had not one
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    but many complete skeletons
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    we have around 30 complete skeletons
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    half a million years old and this is
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    absolutely
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    unique these are the skeletons of the
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    ancestors called homo H highle bensis
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    one of the earliest to populate
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    Europe but why were so many complete
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    skeletons collected in one
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    place Juan Louise AR swaga believes they
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    were put there intentionally by their
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    kin
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    half a million years ago the pit of
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    Bones now deep under ground had an
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    opening to the
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    surface perhaps homo H highle bensis
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    dropped the bodies into the pit in a
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    sort of primitive
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    [Music]
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    burial and there is evidence it may have
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    been
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    ceremonial along with the bones Juan
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    Lise found a single
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    artifact a hand axe made of pink
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    quartz a mineral which must have been
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    brought from a long way
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    away the team called it Excalibur after
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    King Arthur's famous
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    sword they believe it was an offer the
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    first symbol ever
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    found if this is right here were beings
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    with complex Minds capable of symbolism
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    and
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    belief the half a million years ago in
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    these European
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    populations there was planning there was
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    Consciousness there was a human mind and
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    uh there was also symbolic
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    Behavior we used to think these
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    qualities belonged only to us homo sapi
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    that the earliest evidence for them was
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    in the painted caves of Southern France
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    just 30,000 years
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    ago but the extraordinary finds at atera
  • 00:13:43
    may have pushed the beginnings of that
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    mental Evolution back almost half a
  • 00:13:48
    million
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    years homo heidelbergensis would
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    continue to evolve eventually becoming
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    the species who would populate Europe
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    the
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    Neanderthals of all ancient humans the
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    Neanderthals were the closest to
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    us their brains were slightly larger
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    than ours their short heavys set bodies
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    helped them survive repeated ice ages
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    they were Hunters living off the big
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    game that roam the edges of the great
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    ice sheets covering Europe and Central
  • 00:14:27
    Asia when the and fossils were first
  • 00:14:31
    discovered Darwin had yet to publish his
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    theory of
  • 00:14:34
    evolution the idea that modern humans
  • 00:14:37
    had descended from more primitive forms
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    would generate Furious
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    controversy this is the skull of Angus 2
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    it is the first nandal fossil ever found
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    on Earth it was discovered at the end of
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    1829 but back then people were not happy
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    with the idea that this could be a human
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    being like
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    us many claimed that the Neanderthals
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    were just diseased misshapen
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    humans then as evolutionary ideas took
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    hold people wondered if they were the
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    missing link between us and the Apes if
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    we go back to the the beginning of the
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    20th century nandor were seen as sort of
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    apik
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    creatures but since then hundreds of
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    fossil fines have revealed their
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    physical similarities to
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    us after the the 70s uh there was a
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    so-called Rehabilitation of the nandor
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    so we tend to see them in in a more
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    human
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    way but did they think and act like
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    us today the remains of a young boy who
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    died 100,000 years ago are helping
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    research penetrate the mysteries of the
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    Neanderthal
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    mine the M Valley in
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    [Music]
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    Belgium it was caves and rock shelters
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    here that gave up the very first
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    Neanderthal fossils 150 years
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    ago today they are revealing deeper
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    secrets of the Neanderthal world
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    [Music]
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    for over 20 years Michel Tusa and
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    Dominic Balon have been Excavating a
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    cave called
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    [Music]
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    sadina 1 mm at a time they've been
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    sifting through the debris that once
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    filled the
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    cave their painstaking work paid off
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    I've had the chance to be present when
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    one of my students have discovered the
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    ne child and when we have come there and
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    see that this piece well we were so
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    surprised we couldn't
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    believe what they uncovered was the
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    Jawbone of a young boy 100,000 years
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    old nearby they found more fragments and
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    teeth until they had almost a complete
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    mouth
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    since then they've been trying to
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    reconstruct the life the boy from
  • 00:17:39
    slad they know the woodlands and caves
  • 00:17:42
    of the MS Valley were his
  • 00:17:46
    home he probably lived here with his
  • 00:17:48
    extended
  • 00:17:49
    [Music]
  • 00:17:51
    family already he would have been
  • 00:17:53
    learning from his father the skills to
  • 00:17:56
    become a hunter
  • 00:17:59
    but what else can we infer about his way
  • 00:18:02
    of
  • 00:18:04
    life his bones are full of
  • 00:18:08
    Clues and new techniques are allowing
  • 00:18:11
    scientists to decipher
  • 00:18:16
    them Michelle is taking a piece of the
  • 00:18:19
    jaw to one of the few places in the
  • 00:18:21
    world where the test SE needs can be
  • 00:18:23
    done
  • 00:18:25
    [Music]
  • 00:18:29
    the max plank Institute in lepic Germany
  • 00:18:32
    is one of the world's foremost centers
  • 00:18:35
    for human evolutionary
  • 00:18:38
    studies here the jaw bone of the child
  • 00:18:41
    from scladina is put through a
  • 00:18:44
    high-powered CT
  • 00:18:47
    scan this allows researchers to peer
  • 00:18:50
    into the internal structure of the teeth
  • 00:18:53
    and
  • 00:18:56
    Bone so this is the the mandible that
  • 00:19:00
    was scanned yesterday the scan mandible
  • 00:19:03
    and we have built up what we call a
  • 00:19:06
    surface model which is basically a
  • 00:19:08
    virtual representation of the mandible
  • 00:19:11
    in a computer we can separate all the
  • 00:19:14
    teeth from the bone in the specimen the
  • 00:19:17
    features that we can explore show us how
  • 00:19:22
    uh nandal are similar to us in in many
  • 00:19:25
    aspects but also how they are different
  • 00:19:29
    the teeth of children are among the most
  • 00:19:32
    prized of all archaeological
  • 00:19:36
    finds because only they can tell us how
  • 00:19:39
    fast those children were growing
  • 00:19:42
    up if we look at the pattern of eruption
  • 00:19:46
    of the te the scladina
  • 00:19:48
    child by Modern Standard should be about
  • 00:19:51
    11 or 12 years
  • 00:19:55
    old the second m is is almost completely
  • 00:20:00
    erupted uh but when we look at the
  • 00:20:02
    internal structures of the enamel and
  • 00:20:05
    Dentin it has been shown that it's it's
  • 00:20:08
    in fact much younger we know that this
  • 00:20:11
    child died around 8 years
  • 00:20:14
    old although the boy from sadina would
  • 00:20:17
    have looked like us he probably grew up
  • 00:20:20
    much more
  • 00:20:23
    quickly that means he had much less time
  • 00:20:26
    for brain development and learning
  • 00:20:30
    but is it safe to assume the
  • 00:20:32
    Neanderthals were less intelligent than
  • 00:20:35
    we
  • 00:20:36
    are the crucial evidence comes from
  • 00:20:44
    skulls endocasts Impressions taken from
  • 00:20:47
    the inside of Neanderthal skull have
  • 00:20:50
    revealed brains with many similarities
  • 00:20:52
    to ours when we look at the neandertal
  • 00:20:55
    endocast we find a frontal LOE that we
  • 00:20:58
    can't really differentiate from Modern
  • 00:21:00
    Homo sapiens the brokest caps that have
  • 00:21:03
    to do with the motor control motor
  • 00:21:06
    aspects of speech are thoroughly human
  • 00:21:09
    in terms of their
  • 00:21:11
    form so if the front of the Neanderthal
  • 00:21:14
    brain is similar to ours what about the
  • 00:21:17
    rest of
  • 00:21:18
    [Music]
  • 00:21:20
    it today scientists like Catarina
  • 00:21:23
    havarti are trying to measure fossil
  • 00:21:25
    skulls with new precision
  • 00:21:28
    [Music]
  • 00:21:30
    she uses a special instrument to
  • 00:21:32
    digitize the skulls and create perfect
  • 00:21:35
    three-dimensional
  • 00:21:37
    [Music]
  • 00:21:38
    images we've known for a long time that
  • 00:21:41
    nanital look different from modern
  • 00:21:42
    humans ever since they were first
  • 00:21:44
    discovered and described but the
  • 00:21:46
    question then becomes what does this
  • 00:21:48
    difference actually
  • 00:21:50
    mean this is a digitized 3D image of our
  • 00:21:54
    own
  • 00:21:55
    skull with its characteristic High Dome
  • 00:22:00
    by contrast the Neanderthal skull is low
  • 00:22:04
    and elongated possibly indicating a
  • 00:22:07
    different brain
  • 00:22:08
    shape the parts of the Neanderthal brain
  • 00:22:11
    called the parietal and temporal loaves
  • 00:22:14
    may have been slightly
  • 00:22:16
    smaller that small difference could have
  • 00:22:19
    had a large impact on their mental
  • 00:22:21
    ability there are regions of the prial
  • 00:22:24
    loes and the temporal loes that are very
  • 00:22:25
    important in cognition particularly in
  • 00:22:27
    terms of language in memory and
  • 00:22:30
    remembering spatial
  • 00:22:32
    locations the reduced size of those
  • 00:22:35
    regions of Neanderthal brains might be a
  • 00:22:37
    sign of limited thinking
  • 00:22:42
    Powers but the boy from scad's Jawbone
  • 00:22:45
    has more to tell us about other
  • 00:22:51
    limitations back at the max plank
  • 00:22:54
    Institute Mike Richards is delving even
  • 00:22:56
    deeper into the micro structure of the
  • 00:22:59
    bone to find out about his
  • 00:23:02
    diet the food we eat leaves a chemical
  • 00:23:05
    signature in our bodies these signatures
  • 00:23:08
    are incorporated into the protein of our
  • 00:23:11
    bones so what we do is get the bone and
  • 00:23:13
    we take that protein out and measure
  • 00:23:14
    those signatures we can work backwards
  • 00:23:16
    and say this is the food that this human
  • 00:23:18
    ate over their
  • 00:23:19
    lifetime he's discovering that
  • 00:23:21
    neanderthals were almost exclusively
  • 00:23:24
    meat eaters although there were many
  • 00:23:27
    fruits berries and Ed roots in their
  • 00:23:30
    environment we don't see any evidence
  • 00:23:33
    that plant protein was at all important
  • 00:23:34
    in their diet and it doesn't look like
  • 00:23:36
    they had marine food at all they were
  • 00:23:38
    hunting large herbivores like bison or
  • 00:23:41
    reindeer and things like
  • 00:23:43
    that they were carnivores with a diet
  • 00:23:46
    closer to that of a predator like a wolf
  • 00:23:49
    than a human and they showed few signs
  • 00:23:52
    of change no matter where they
  • 00:23:55
    live so far we' measured the type
  • 00:23:57
    specimen from Germany that the Neals
  • 00:23:59
    from sadina Neals from France and
  • 00:24:01
    Croatia over about 100,000 years and in
  • 00:24:03
    every case in all these different
  • 00:24:04
    environments the Neals do same
  • 00:24:07
    thing so the bones of the boy from
  • 00:24:10
    scladina and his people are revealing
  • 00:24:13
    important Clues to Neanderthal
  • 00:24:17
    Behavior they did one thing hunting
  • 00:24:20
    large game and they just kept on doing
  • 00:24:23
    it for hundreds of thousands of years
  • 00:24:28
    their technology tells a similar
  • 00:24:32
    story Nal technology is is quick and
  • 00:24:34
    dirty it's simple there's very few tools
  • 00:24:37
    that nals made that one can't copy in a
  • 00:24:40
    few seconds or even minutes although
  • 00:24:43
    they hunted large animals they didn't
  • 00:24:45
    have throwing Spears or
  • 00:24:47
    arrows none of the the stone tools that
  • 00:24:50
    the Nars made are the size and shape
  • 00:24:53
    sufficient to be a projectile point
  • 00:24:54
    they're all too big which suggests
  • 00:24:56
    they're either knives or tips of
  • 00:24:58
    trusting
  • 00:25:01
    Spears that meant Neanderthal Hunters
  • 00:25:04
    had to get close to their prey to kill
  • 00:25:06
    them which made hunting a risky
  • 00:25:12
    business most Neanderthal male skeletons
  • 00:25:15
    have multiple
  • 00:25:20
    fractures Neanderthal lines were tough
  • 00:25:24
    and they were short
  • 00:25:26
    [Music]
  • 00:25:29
    their skeletons tell us that very few
  • 00:25:32
    lived beyond the age of
  • 00:25:36
    30 but as a species the Neanderthals
  • 00:25:40
    were long lived they lasted for almost
  • 00:25:43
    400,000 years that's twice as long as we
  • 00:25:47
    have but one day their time on Earth
  • 00:25:50
    would come to an
  • 00:25:52
    end by 25,000 years ago they vanish from
  • 00:25:57
    the fossil record
  • 00:25:59
    so what
  • 00:26:04
    happened to find out we have to return
  • 00:26:07
    to
  • 00:26:12
    Africa the Great Rift Valley the stage
  • 00:26:16
    on which so much of human evolution has
  • 00:26:19
    played
  • 00:26:20
    [Music]
  • 00:26:24
    out it was here millions of years ago
  • 00:26:27
    that nature began its Grand experiment
  • 00:26:31
    with creatures like Lucy who walked
  • 00:26:35
    upright it was here just over a million
  • 00:26:38
    years ago that turab boy and his kind
  • 00:26:42
    with their bigger brains and bodies
  • 00:26:44
    formed the first hunter gatherer
  • 00:26:49
    society and it was here about 200,000
  • 00:26:53
    years ago that the skulls of a new
  • 00:26:56
    species start to be found
  • 00:26:59
    the last human to evolve Homo
  • 00:27:03
    sapiens they are still not completely us
  • 00:27:07
    their brow ridges are a little heavier
  • 00:27:10
    their faces a little bigger and their
  • 00:27:12
    technology is still simple you have
  • 00:27:15
    stone tools made by nals and stone tools
  • 00:27:17
    made by Homo sapiens and they're
  • 00:27:20
    identical you can't tell which one made
  • 00:27:21
    the stone tools cuz they're making the
  • 00:27:23
    same kinds of
  • 00:27:25
    tools so what changed what made us into
  • 00:27:29
    the versatile beings we are
  • 00:27:32
    today all the evidence points to climate
  • 00:27:35
    appe we enter one of the longest coldest
  • 00:27:39
    glacial stages on record around 200,000
  • 00:27:43
    years ago vast ice sheets
  • 00:27:46
    descend in Africa Mega droughts turn
  • 00:27:50
    much of the continent into a
  • 00:27:56
    desert and so basically you've got this
  • 00:27:58
    double whammy of climatic challenges
  • 00:28:00
    slamming the African population and the
  • 00:28:01
    people
  • 00:28:03
    dwindle geneticist Spencer Wells
  • 00:28:06
    believes that ancient population crashes
  • 00:28:09
    have left a footprint in our genes it's
  • 00:28:12
    called the bottleneck
  • 00:28:15
    effect humans although on the surface we
  • 00:28:18
    seem to be so different from each other
  • 00:28:19
    actually have remarkably little genetic
  • 00:28:21
    diversity were 99.9%
  • 00:28:25
    identical you look at other Apes like
  • 00:28:27
    chimps or G gorillas or ruttin they have
  • 00:28:29
    between four and 10 times as much
  • 00:28:31
    diversity at the DNA
  • 00:28:34
    level the lack of diversity in human DNA
  • 00:28:38
    is a clue to a crisis that may have
  • 00:28:41
    wiped out whole
  • 00:28:45
    populations reason that we have so
  • 00:28:47
    little diversity at the genetic level is
  • 00:28:49
    because we lost it at some
  • 00:28:51
    point imagine that this bottle of jelly
  • 00:28:54
    beans is the initial population you've
  • 00:28:55
    got so much diversity in here what
  • 00:28:58
    happens during a bottleneck when you go
  • 00:28:59
    through the bottleneck only a few of the
  • 00:29:01
    lineages survive so that's the drop in
  • 00:29:03
    population size right there everyone
  • 00:29:06
    alive today is a descendant of these
  • 00:29:08
    individuals and you can see that we're
  • 00:29:09
    missing many of the colors that you see
  • 00:29:10
    in the initial population that's how a
  • 00:29:12
    bottleneck works and everybody alive
  • 00:29:14
    today is a descendant of that small
  • 00:29:16
    number of individuals who made it
  • 00:29:17
    through the
  • 00:29:23
    bottleneck ancient climate data shows
  • 00:29:25
    that around 140,000 years ago most of
  • 00:29:29
    tropical Africa became
  • 00:29:35
    uninhabitable our ancestors were forced
  • 00:29:38
    to seek refuge on coasts and
  • 00:29:43
    Highlands it looks like four to six
  • 00:29:46
    potential locations in Africa that would
  • 00:29:49
    still be supportive of Hunter gather
  • 00:29:53
    populations despite the refuges there is
  • 00:29:57
    evidence our our ancestors were pushed
  • 00:29:59
    to the brink of
  • 00:30:03
    Extinction the genetic record shows us
  • 00:30:06
    that all modern humans are descended
  • 00:30:07
    from a small population of approximately
  • 00:30:10
    600 breeding individuals there's
  • 00:30:12
    disagreement about the numbers and
  • 00:30:14
    timing but it does seem that all people
  • 00:30:17
    on Earth are descended from a very small
  • 00:30:20
    original population in
  • 00:30:24
    Africa Curtis Marian believes they live
  • 00:30:27
    on the south African Coastal and that it
  • 00:30:30
    was life by the sea that forced them to
  • 00:30:35
    [Music]
  • 00:30:36
    change at Pinnacle Point South Africa he
  • 00:30:39
    has found caves used by early Homo
  • 00:30:42
    sapiens ancestors during the mega
  • 00:30:44
    drought
  • 00:30:47
    period they're full of clues that hint
  • 00:30:50
    at new ways of thinking and
  • 00:30:53
    behaving here he has found some of the
  • 00:30:56
    earliest evidence that humans were
  • 00:30:59
    living off the
  • 00:31:00
    sea this darkish material here is is ash
  • 00:31:04
    from a
  • 00:31:05
    fireplace and the vast majority of this
  • 00:31:08
    material is is burnt shell so clearly
  • 00:31:11
    there was quite a bit of uh of cooking
  • 00:31:14
    of shellfish that was taking place at
  • 00:31:15
    this this exact spot 76,000 years
  • 00:31:20
    ago somebody had a a nice shellfish
  • 00:31:23
    dinner
  • 00:31:26
    there he here was a population that was
  • 00:31:29
    broadening its diet away from
  • 00:31:33
    meat requiring Ingenuity unknown among
  • 00:31:37
    earlier
  • 00:31:40
    ancestors you go out to collect
  • 00:31:42
    shellfish at the wrong time you're dead
  • 00:31:45
    you have to be able to time your access
  • 00:31:47
    to the coastline so that you are here
  • 00:31:48
    when the tides are right to collect
  • 00:31:50
    those
  • 00:31:53
    shellfish the best time to collect
  • 00:31:55
    shellfish is at extreme low time
  • 00:32:00
    and to predict those it helps to
  • 00:32:03
    understand the cycles of the
  • 00:32:07
    Moon those are the times that you want
  • 00:32:09
    to be collecting shellfish all the
  • 00:32:11
    shellfish are exposed so this water
  • 00:32:13
    which you see here is out there at that
  • 00:32:16
    point where that rock is so the smart
  • 00:32:18
    Coastal Hunter gather knows how to use
  • 00:32:21
    the moon to signal to them when to come
  • 00:32:24
    to the coastline to collect the
  • 00:32:26
    shellfish
  • 00:32:29
    the people of Pinnacle Point were not
  • 00:32:32
    just harvesting shellfish they were also
  • 00:32:35
    hunting on the planes behind the coast
  • 00:32:37
    and Gathering berries and Roots their
  • 00:32:40
    way of life reflected a new
  • 00:32:44
    versatility the systematic use of
  • 00:32:47
    coastal resources does suggest a a
  • 00:32:50
    cognitive
  • 00:32:52
    complexity our ancestors occupied these
  • 00:32:55
    caves for over 100 40,000 years leaving
  • 00:33:00
    behind an amazing record of their
  • 00:33:06
    transformation this site documents a
  • 00:33:08
    change in the way that people made stone
  • 00:33:10
    tools at the bottom of the sequence they
  • 00:33:13
    made stone tools with this rough
  • 00:33:14
    Quartzsite material and then right at
  • 00:33:17
    about 71,000 years ago which occurs just
  • 00:33:20
    about there in the sequence they make a
  • 00:33:23
    shift to making stone tools on this silr
  • 00:33:27
    in the form of long thin blades before
  • 00:33:30
    flaking it the people here were heating
  • 00:33:32
    this material in the fire and through
  • 00:33:35
    heating it improved its fakability and
  • 00:33:37
    that was at about 71,000 years ago about
  • 00:33:40
    40,000 years older than that has been
  • 00:33:42
    found anywhere else in the
  • 00:33:44
    world the technology of our ancestors
  • 00:33:47
    was expanding from the single allpurpose
  • 00:33:50
    hand ax to a variety of lighter
  • 00:33:54
    specialized
  • 00:33:55
    tools then they started to make these
  • 00:33:57
    kinds of things they made tools with
  • 00:34:00
    special little points for Perforating
  • 00:34:02
    tasks like this they made others with
  • 00:34:05
    special little chisel ends for carving
  • 00:34:10
    tasks specialized tools allowed our
  • 00:34:13
    ancestors to get more out of their
  • 00:34:15
    environment but this wasn't the only
  • 00:34:19
    change at this point we begin to see
  • 00:34:22
    people treating stone tools as symbols
  • 00:34:24
    they're making them more complex than
  • 00:34:26
    they need to be to accomplish a
  • 00:34:27
    particular cutting task so at this point
  • 00:34:30
    stone tools are no longer just tools for
  • 00:34:31
    cutting things they're instruments of of
  • 00:34:34
    carrying social information about their
  • 00:34:39
    owners a new type of symbolic
  • 00:34:41
    Consciousness was
  • 00:34:43
    emerging the first evidence of
  • 00:34:46
    decorative art made from a naturally
  • 00:34:48
    occurring mineral called red ochre has
  • 00:34:51
    been found at blombos another cave along
  • 00:34:54
    the South African Coast
  • 00:34:59
    while we were Excavating more or less in
  • 00:35:01
    this area you can see over here we found
  • 00:35:04
    a chunk of ochre and when we brushed up
  • 00:35:09
    the surface of the ochre uh we realized
  • 00:35:12
    that there was actually a design on the
  • 00:35:14
    one
  • 00:35:15
    side and once we looked at it in more
  • 00:35:19
    detail held it up to the
  • 00:35:21
    light uh we could see a cross-hatch
  • 00:35:24
    pattern that had lines zigzagged across
  • 00:35:29
    the surface of this flat ground
  • 00:35:32
    surface um and also had lines across the
  • 00:35:35
    top through the middle and along the
  • 00:35:37
    bottom and you can imagine there was
  • 00:35:40
    enormous excitement because we did not
  • 00:35:44
    expect to find um something that might
  • 00:35:47
    represent a symbolic image uh in these
  • 00:35:51
    75,000 level so uh this really was an
  • 00:35:56
    enormous an enormous surprise
  • 00:35:58
    forness at blombos they've also found
  • 00:36:01
    shells with holes drilled in them
  • 00:36:03
    believed to have been used for
  • 00:36:07
    necklaces so our ancestors were now
  • 00:36:10
    wearing ornaments and probably painting
  • 00:36:12
    their bodies as
  • 00:36:14
    well for me what is really important is
  • 00:36:17
    here for the first time really ever we
  • 00:36:20
    have evidence that people can store
  • 00:36:23
    information outside of the human brain
  • 00:36:27
    [Music]
  • 00:36:29
    it is the birth of a new type of human
  • 00:36:34
    culture more complex but easier to pass
  • 00:36:38
    on from generation to
  • 00:36:46
    generation 60,000 years ago our
  • 00:36:49
    ancestors emerged with new technology
  • 00:36:52
    and new
  • 00:36:54
    culture thousands of years of drought
  • 00:36:56
    had forced them to
  • 00:37:00
    change they were ready to explore the
  • 00:37:03
    world as the climate improved they
  • 00:37:06
    started to stream Out of
  • 00:37:09
    [Music]
  • 00:37:12
    Africa they might have been surprised to
  • 00:37:15
    discover continents already populated by
  • 00:37:17
    other
  • 00:37:18
    humans remnants of earlier more
  • 00:37:21
    primitive
  • 00:37:25
    migrations as they moved into Asia they
  • 00:37:28
    might have come across Homo erectus or
  • 00:37:30
    the tiny
  • 00:37:32
    Hobbit there's no evidence for such a
  • 00:37:35
    meeting but there is one encounter we
  • 00:37:38
    can be more certain
  • 00:37:41
    about as a separate waves slowly move
  • 00:37:45
    through the Middle East into
  • 00:37:47
    Europe they must have met the
  • 00:37:53
    Neanderthals what were those meetings
  • 00:37:55
    like
  • 00:37:58
    for many years scientists speculated
  • 00:38:00
    that early Homo sapiens populations
  • 00:38:03
    absorbed the Neanderthals through
  • 00:38:07
    interbreeding if they did there would be
  • 00:38:10
    traces of Neanderthal DNA in our genes
  • 00:38:17
    today but there was no way to detect
  • 00:38:19
    Neanderthal DNA until researchers at the
  • 00:38:22
    max plank Institute set out on a daring
  • 00:38:26
    scientific Odyssey
  • 00:38:28
    the quest to sequence the Neanderthal
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    genome the human genome contains
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    approximately 3 billion chemical bases
  • 00:38:42
    the A's T's C's and G's that make up our
  • 00:38:47
    gen mapping that was hard
  • 00:38:50
    [Music]
  • 00:38:51
    enough the idea of mapping the Genome of
  • 00:38:54
    a long extinct species seemed seemed
  • 00:38:57
    Pure
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    Fantasy but that didn't stop Santi Pabo
  • 00:39:02
    from dreaming about
  • 00:39:04
    it the first problem was to get DNA from
  • 00:39:08
    Neanderthal bones over 30,000 years
  • 00:39:12
    old in most cases DNA degrades steadily
  • 00:39:16
    over time leaving only minute
  • 00:39:19
    fragments my group is involved since
  • 00:39:22
    over 20 years now in developing
  • 00:39:24
    techniques to retrieve ancient DNA from
  • 00:39:27
    fossils and old bones and of course
  • 00:39:30
    always a dream was to do the neandertal
  • 00:39:32
    our closest
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    relative but finally taking great care
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    not to contaminate it with their own
  • 00:39:41
    they isolated the first piece of
  • 00:39:44
    Neanderthal
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    DNA spon's dream is now a
  • 00:39:52
    reality he and his team have made a
  • 00:39:55
    draft of the entire neand Thal
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    genome now scientists all over the world
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    can compare key parts of it to the human
  • 00:40:08
    genome and one such comparison is
  • 00:40:11
    already giving us deeper insight into
  • 00:40:14
    the Neanderthal brain the gene called
  • 00:40:18
    Fox
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    P2 it's the only Gene we know of today
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    that's involved in speech and language
  • 00:40:24
    development in humans we know that
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    because if one copy is lost in a human
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    due to a mutation who have a severe
  • 00:40:31
    speech
  • 00:40:33
    problem when first discovered Fox P2
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    created a lot of excitement although
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    many animals have the fox P2 Gene the
  • 00:40:42
    human version is
  • 00:40:45
    unique some thought it was the gene for
  • 00:40:50
    language we now know that complex traits
  • 00:40:53
    like language are controlled by many gen
  • 00:40:56
    yet researchers are agree the human
  • 00:40:58
    version of fox P2 is closely tied to
  • 00:41:01
    some of the basic motor skills necessary
  • 00:41:04
    for
  • 00:41:09
    speech and the big question was of
  • 00:41:11
    course is that shared with neander TOS
  • 00:41:13
    or
  • 00:41:15
    not and when we now look at it in the
  • 00:41:18
    neander tall indeed it looks to be
  • 00:41:21
    identical with
  • 00:41:22
    us it's tantalizing evidence that
  • 00:41:25
    despite their mental limitations
  • 00:41:27
    the boy from scladina and his people may
  • 00:41:30
    have been able to
  • 00:41:34
    speak if we share the capacity for
  • 00:41:36
    language with the
  • 00:41:38
    Neanderthals could we both have
  • 00:41:39
    inherited it from the same Source a
  • 00:41:43
    common ancestor who gave rise to both
  • 00:41:46
    species who was
  • 00:41:49
    it with a technique called the molecular
  • 00:41:52
    clock scientists can now find out that's
  • 00:41:56
    because DNA mutated Ates or changes at a
  • 00:41:58
    surprisingly regular rate by counting
  • 00:42:02
    the differences in the genetic code of
  • 00:42:04
    Neanderthal and ourselves simply
  • 00:42:07
    comparing the A's T's C's and G's in our
  • 00:42:11
    DNA scientists can calculate how long
  • 00:42:14
    the two species have been
  • 00:42:18
    diverging we can then estimate when
  • 00:42:21
    there was a common ancestral population
  • 00:42:23
    where some individuals went on to become
  • 00:42:26
    modern humans some went on to become the
  • 00:42:29
    under
  • 00:42:30
    tals is in the order of say 300,000
  • 00:42:34
    400,000 years
  • 00:42:37
    ago the timing points straight to the
  • 00:42:39
    Intriguing ancestors who left Africa
  • 00:42:42
    half a million years ago and buried
  • 00:42:45
    their dead in the hills of Northern
  • 00:42:48
    Spain leaving a distinctive pink hand ax
  • 00:42:52
    at the spot
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    [Music]
  • 00:42:57
    this is homo heidle
  • 00:43:01
    bensis who we now know is our ancestor
  • 00:43:05
    [Music]
  • 00:43:08
    too in Europe they evolved into the
  • 00:43:12
    Neanderthal in Africa groups that had
  • 00:43:15
    not yet migrated evolved into Homo
  • 00:43:19
    sapiens so DNA is revealing we share a
  • 00:43:23
    common ancestor with the Neanderthals
  • 00:43:27
    but do we carry some vestage of
  • 00:43:29
    Neanderthal DNA in our genes proof that
  • 00:43:33
    we absorb them by Inner
  • 00:43:38
    breeding some people claim that there
  • 00:43:40
    are some hybrids of neand and modern
  • 00:43:42
    humans in the in the genetical record we
  • 00:43:45
    don't see clear evidence of that the big
  • 00:43:48
    story is that they were nandor they were
  • 00:43:50
    replaced by other people and and and
  • 00:43:52
    after a rather short time we don't see
  • 00:43:55
    any trace of the
  • 00:43:57
    in Europe and certainly today we don't
  • 00:43:59
    see really traces of neand
  • 00:44:02
    genes with no evidence of inner breeding
  • 00:44:05
    it now seems more likely that as our
  • 00:44:07
    population grew we simply pushed the
  • 00:44:10
    Neanderthals out of their
  • 00:44:13
    environments humans have a very
  • 00:44:15
    intensive way of using the environment
  • 00:44:17
    we seem to have the ability to pump out
  • 00:44:20
    lots of babies and our babies seem to
  • 00:44:22
    have a high probability of surviving so
  • 00:44:24
    population growth is a really important
  • 00:44:26
    part of the of the human
  • 00:44:29
    adaptation the arrival of homo sapiens
  • 00:44:32
    was not the only thing the Neanderthals
  • 00:44:34
    had to contend
  • 00:44:36
    with Europe was gripped by wild climate
  • 00:44:41
    swings the Neanderthals were already
  • 00:44:44
    struggling to
  • 00:44:45
    survive probably the density of
  • 00:44:48
    Neanderthals in the in the landscape uh
  • 00:44:51
    was very
  • 00:44:54
    low and there was a good reason for that
  • 00:44:57
    Neanderthal technology was limited and
  • 00:45:00
    their energy needs were
  • 00:45:03
    huge they had this big body this big
  • 00:45:06
    brain living in a rather cold
  • 00:45:07
    environment so we we have estimates of
  • 00:45:10
    their uh energy consumption every day
  • 00:45:14
    it's about 5,000 kilo calories it's
  • 00:45:17
    about what what someone racing the tour
  • 00:45:20
    def France is spending every
  • 00:45:22
    [Music]
  • 00:45:24
    day but with Slimmer taller IES modern
  • 00:45:28
    humans had lower energy demands and an
  • 00:45:31
    Ever improving
  • 00:45:32
    toolkit they now developed yet another
  • 00:45:35
    breakthrough
  • 00:45:36
    technology projectile weapons throwing
  • 00:45:43
    Spears these are two very different
  • 00:45:45
    kinds of Spears these are the big heavy
  • 00:45:48
    wooden Spears that deander TS and their
  • 00:45:49
    ancestors used these are the lighter
  • 00:45:52
    bone tip Spears that homo sapiens used
  • 00:45:55
    these weapons have different kind of per
  • 00:45:56
    performance characteristics the the
  • 00:45:58
    heavy Spears are effective but they're
  • 00:46:00
    effective at a very short range and
  • 00:46:01
    they're heavy you can only carry so many
  • 00:46:03
    of them in one
  • 00:46:05
    hand the bone tip Spears are lighter
  • 00:46:08
    they're more
  • 00:46:09
    durable they have a longer effective
  • 00:46:12
    range in essence the the bone tip Spears
  • 00:46:15
    that our ancestors use allow them to
  • 00:46:17
    hunt a wider range of animals more
  • 00:46:19
    safely and therefore to have a broader
  • 00:46:21
    ecological
  • 00:46:25
    niche these big heavy spe Spears with
  • 00:46:27
    their you know their weight their
  • 00:46:29
    relatively short range it's like hunting
  • 00:46:31
    with a pistol whereas using these things
  • 00:46:33
    is like hunting with a semi-automatic
  • 00:46:35
    rifle one has more than one shot one has
  • 00:46:37
    greater range it's a more effective
  • 00:46:40
    weapon throwing Spears allowed our
  • 00:46:43
    ancestors to go after a wider range of
  • 00:46:46
    game with less risk to
  • 00:46:49
    themselves the modern humans have this
  • 00:46:51
    trend of intensifying their exploitation
  • 00:46:55
    of the environment to sort of squeezing
  • 00:46:58
    out everything possible from the
  • 00:47:02
    environment that Trend already
  • 00:47:04
    established in Africa would become more
  • 00:47:07
    pronounced as our ancestors spread
  • 00:47:09
    around the
  • 00:47:12
    world archaeologists have been able to
  • 00:47:14
    track their movements by the extinctions
  • 00:47:17
    of large
  • 00:47:20
    animals in Europe and Asia the arrival
  • 00:47:23
    of homo sapiens coincides with the
  • 00:47:26
    disappearing
  • 00:47:27
    of the hairy Mammoth the Cav Line and
  • 00:47:30
    other large
  • 00:47:34
    mammal in Australia most animals
  • 00:47:37
    weighing over 100 lb vanish within a few
  • 00:47:41
    thousand years of our
  • 00:47:43
    arrival the effects of homo sapiens on
  • 00:47:46
    large animal communities become more
  • 00:47:48
    profound As you move further and further
  • 00:47:49
    from Africa so very few major
  • 00:47:51
    extinctions in Africa a few of them few
  • 00:47:53
    extinctions associated with Homo sapiens
  • 00:47:55
    moving into Eurasia and then when they
  • 00:47:57
    hit when they hit Australia in the new
  • 00:47:59
    world it's a wipe
  • 00:48:01
    out the Neanderthals were just one of
  • 00:48:05
    many species that disappeared when we
  • 00:48:08
    arrived gradually they were pushed into
  • 00:48:11
    marginal areas of Europe their last
  • 00:48:14
    Refuge seems to have been the Rock of
  • 00:48:16
    Gibralter 28,000 years ago then they
  • 00:48:23
    vanished leaving no Legacy but their
  • 00:48:26
    fossilized
  • 00:48:29
    bones for the first time there was only
  • 00:48:32
    one type of human on the
  • 00:48:36
    planet but these species it covered the
  • 00:48:40
    whole planet it went to places where
  • 00:48:43
    other hominines lived LED them to
  • 00:48:45
    Extinction actually they went to
  • 00:48:48
    Australia they went to Americas they
  • 00:48:50
    went to the moon and they will go to
  • 00:48:51
    Mars and and this is very peculiar
  • 00:48:54
    because the way these species intensify
  • 00:48:57
    its exploitation of the environment is
  • 00:49:00
    really
  • 00:49:01
    unique in the beginning climate
  • 00:49:04
    upheavals made us what we
  • 00:49:07
    are they taught us a new inventiveness
  • 00:49:10
    which has led to a Cascade of
  • 00:49:12
    technological
  • 00:49:15
    advances but exactly what made us
  • 00:49:18
    different is still an
  • 00:49:20
    enigma soon we'll discover the genetic
  • 00:49:23
    changes unique to our species
  • 00:49:27
    but genes are only part of what makes us
  • 00:49:31
    special the other part is that
  • 00:49:33
    mysterious creation unique to
  • 00:49:37
    humans
  • 00:49:39
    culture Homo sapiens is the most
  • 00:49:42
    adaptable species in the human career
  • 00:49:46
    meaning that no matter what happens in
  • 00:49:48
    the world we have a way of adapting to
  • 00:49:50
    it today that way is called culture if
  • 00:49:54
    glaciers came to Arizona where I live we
  • 00:49:56
    wouldn't be growing thick fur and thick
  • 00:49:59
    skin we would be building more
  • 00:50:00
    fireplaces and heating
  • 00:50:04
    systems culture is the storehouse of our
  • 00:50:07
    complex ways of thinking and
  • 00:50:11
    perceiving and we pass it on to our
  • 00:50:13
    children as surely as we pass on our
  • 00:50:17
    genes the ways in which cultural
  • 00:50:20
    Evolution and genetic Evolution
  • 00:50:23
    interact will be at the Forefront of the
  • 00:50:26
    research search of
  • 00:50:27
    tomorrow because one thing is for
  • 00:50:30
    sure evolution is not stopping rate of
  • 00:50:35
    evolution and the genomic level has
  • 00:50:36
    increased over the last 10,000 years and
  • 00:50:38
    it probably will continue over the next
  • 00:50:40
    few thousand years where it will take us
  • 00:50:44
    nobody
  • 00:50:45
    knows but we're still a young species
  • 00:50:49
    there is a long future ah
  • 00:50:58
    [Applause]
  • 00:51:14
    [Music]
  • 00:51:17
    this Nova program is available on DVD
  • 00:51:20
    and Blu-ray at shoppbs.org or call 1800
  • 00:51:25
    playay PBS see
  • 00:51:33
    [Music]
  • 00:51:43
    [Music]
Tags
  • evolução
  • Homo sapiens
  • Neandertais
  • genética
  • fósseis
  • adaptação
  • cultura
  • tecnologia
  • extinção
  • ancestrais