Como nos Tornamos Humanos - Ep. 3/3 (Documentário-2009)
Resumo
TLDRO vídeo explora a evolução dos Homo sapiens, que emergiram como a única espécie humana restante após substituir outras como os Neandertais. A partir de uma pequena população de 600 indivíduos, os Homo sapiens se adaptaram ao ambiente desafiador da África, desenvolvendo habilidades de caça, ferramentas e uma dieta variada que incluía alimentos do mar. Através de descobertas genéticas, aprendemos que a extinção dos Neandertais foi influenciada pela superioridade em tecnologia e adaptabilidade dos Homo sapiens. O estudo dos fósseis e das características genéticas também sugere que compartilhamos uma história comum com os Neandertais, revelando nuances sobre nossa capacidade de linguagem e desenvolvimento cultural.
Conclusões
- 🧬 A linhagem dos Homo sapiens deriva de uma pequena população de 600 indivíduos.
- 🌍 Os Homo sapiens surgiram na África e se espalharam pelo mundo.
- 🦴 Neandertais eram humanos avançados, mas foram substituídos.
- 🔍 Descobertas arqueológicas revelam a complexidade da mente humana.
- ⚒️ A tecnologia dos Homo sapiens superou a dos Neandertais, permitindo melhor sobrevivência.
- 🌊 A dieta diversificada dos Homo sapiens incluía frutos do mar e caça.
- 💡 O uso de ferramentas e a capacidade simbólica emergiram de mudanças culturais.
- ❄️ Mudanças climáticas severas contribuíram para a evolução humana.
- 💬 Neandertais provavelmente tinham a capacidade de se comunicar.
- 🌱 Evolução cultural e genética interagem constantemente.
Linha do tempo
- 00:00:00 - 00:05:00
O documentário explora a evolução humana, destacando a transição dos primeiros hominídeos de um passado semelhante aos macacos até a espécie moderna, Homo sapiens. Apresenta uma linha do tempo que mostra a diversidade de ancestrais humanos ao longo de mais de seis milhões de anos, questionando o que nos tornou únicos e por que somos a única espécie humana restante.
- 00:05:00 - 00:10:00
Há 140.000 anos, o Homo sapiens enfrentou extinção em uma competição acirrada com outras espécies humanas, como os Neandertais. A inteligência e adaptação ao meio ambiente são enfatizadas, mostrando como os humanos modernos eventualmente se espalharam pelo mundo e substituíram essas outras espécies, que eram bem adaptadas em seu tempo.
- 00:10:00 - 00:15:00
O foco se volta para Homo erectus, reconhecido como o primeiro ancestral humano de corpo semelhante ao nosso, que começou a usar ferramentas e viver em grupos sociais. O estudo do fóssil de um jovem, chamado 'Turab Boy', sugere uma fase importante de nossa evolução, onde as bases do comportamento humano moderno começaram a surgir.
- 00:15:00 - 00:20:00
Em diferentes locais do mundo, Homo erectus e os primeiros humanos começam a se espalhar. Os restos de Homo heidelbergensis na Espanha oferecem insights sobre os primeiros humanos na Europa e implicações de comportamento simbólico e consciência, revelando uma rica vida social e cultural ao longo de meio milhão de anos.
- 00:20:00 - 00:25:00
A pesquisa no 'Poço de Ossos' revela muitas skeletons de Homo heidelbergensis, sugerindo rituais funerários primitivos e um nível de consciência que aponta para a origem da cultura humana. Isso leva a uma reavaliação da complexidade social e cognitiva dessa espécie.
- 00:25:00 - 00:30:00
Os Neandertais são apresentados como os 'primos' mais próximos dos modernos humanos, com discussões sobre suas semelhanças físicas e comportamentais. A descoberta de fósseis ajuda a explorar suas vidas, ritualização e habilidades cognitivas, desafiando preconceitos antigos de que eram brutos e primitivos.
- 00:30:00 - 00:35:00
Estudos de um jovem Neandertal questionam se sua inteligência era inferior à dos Homo sapiens. As investigações detalhadas de suas características cranianas e dietas revelam semelhanças e diferencias, desafiando noções preconcebidas sobre a capacidade intelectual Neandertal.
- 00:35:00 - 00:40:00
A pesquisa genética revela que os humanos modernos têm um ancestral comum com os Neandertais, o que implica em possíveis interações entre as espécies. Essa conexão é ressaltada pela análise de um gene crucial relacionado à linguagem, que compartilham, sugerindo semelhanças na comunicação.
- 00:40:00 - 00:45:00
Além do estudo dos fósseis, técnicas modernas em biologia e genética têm identificado como as populações humanas se diversificaram e quais adaptações ocorreram ao longo do tempo com base nas mudanças climáticas e migrações, revelando como as pressões ambientais moldaram o humano moderno.
- 00:45:00 - 00:51:46
Por fim, a interação da evolução cultural e genética é discutida, enfatizando que a cultura é uma adaptação humana singular que continua a evoluir, moldando nosso futuro mesmo em um mundo em rápida mudança. A reflexão final sugere que a evolução não está parada e que o futuro da espécie ainda está em desenvolvimento.
Mapa mental
Vídeo de perguntas e respostas
Qual é a origem dos Homo sapiens?
Os Homo sapiens descendem de uma pequena população de aproximadamente 600 indivíduos com origem na África.
O que causou a extinção dos Neandertais?
Os Homo sapiens, com maior adaptabilidade e capacidade tecnológica, gradualmente substituíram os Neandertais em seu habitat.
Como os Homo sapiens se adaptaram ao seu ambiente?
Nós utilizamos recursos de maneira intensiva e desenvolvemos tecnologias, como ferramentas especializadas e armas de arremesso.
Qual é a importância da genética na evolução humana?
A pesquisa genética revela como temos pouco diversidade genética devido a um 'efeito gargalo', onde grandes populações diminuíram drasticamente.
Os Neandertais podiam falar?
Evidências sugerem que os Neandertais possuíam a capacidade de falar, pois compartilham um gene relacionado à linguagem com os humanos modernos.
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Questa AI parla come un umano… e fa paura! (DEMO SESAME)
- 00:00:00[Music]
- 00:00:14humans without a doubt the smartest
- 00:00:17animal on earth yet we're unmistakably
- 00:00:20tied to our AP
- 00:00:23Origins millions of years ago we were
- 00:00:25Apes living ape lives in
- 00:00:28Africa so how did we get from
- 00:00:31that to
- 00:00:34this what
- 00:00:36happened what set us on the path to
- 00:00:40humanity the questions are huge but at
- 00:00:43last there are
- 00:00:45answers more than 6 million years ago we
- 00:00:49took the first step to separate from the
- 00:00:51Apes since then there have been at least
- 00:00:5420 types of human ancestor in our family
- 00:00:58tree some of them were on their way to
- 00:01:01being us others were evolutionary dead
- 00:01:05ends as recently as 50,000 years ago
- 00:01:09there were probably four different kinds
- 00:01:11of humans living at the same time yet
- 00:01:13today we are a species
- 00:01:16alone why did we survive and all the
- 00:01:19others
- 00:01:21disappear new discoveries are Shining
- 00:01:24Light on the final stages of our
- 00:01:27Evolution we're finding out where where
- 00:01:30our species Homo sapiens came from the
- 00:01:33genetic record shows us that all modern
- 00:01:36humans are descended from a small
- 00:01:37population of approximately 600 breeding
- 00:01:41individuals and we are discovering how
- 00:01:44they spread through the world pushing
- 00:01:46out other ancient humans like the
- 00:01:50Neanderthal neanderthals were very
- 00:01:53successful humans they have lived in
- 00:01:55Europe for maybe 300 400,000 years but
- 00:01:59eventually they were replaced by modern
- 00:02:01humans but why were they replaced by
- 00:02:04modern humans The Mystery of the
- 00:02:06Neanderthal disappearance is finally
- 00:02:09being solved as the secrets of their
- 00:02:11genetic code are
- 00:02:14unlocked we're discovering exactly what
- 00:02:17made them different from us and how
- 00:02:21we're
- 00:02:23unique so join us as we explore the
- 00:02:26origins of our own species find out one
- 00:02:30where the last humans standing right now
- 00:02:34on Nova
- 00:02:55[Music]
- 00:03:07imagine a world with only a tiny number
- 00:03:10of us in
- 00:03:11it perhaps just a few thousand a
- 00:03:15recently evolved species we are
- 00:03:17completely at the mercy of the Natural
- 00:03:19Forces around
- 00:03:23us 140,000 years ago Homo sapiens
- 00:03:27teetered on the brink of Extinction
- 00:03:31new discoveries are revealing how from
- 00:03:33these humble beginnings we took over the
- 00:03:37planet eventually replacing other
- 00:03:40ancient humans who were already living
- 00:03:42there Homo erectus and the
- 00:03:46Neanderthals humans have a very
- 00:03:48intensive way of using the
- 00:03:50environment humans move into the Middle
- 00:03:52East the homorectus starts going
- 00:03:56extinct when humans move into Europe the
- 00:03:59Neanderthals go
- 00:04:01for almost 400,000 years the
- 00:04:04Neanderthals lived in Ice Age Europe
- 00:04:08superb Hunters they had brains bigger
- 00:04:11than ours and a record of survival twice
- 00:04:14as
- 00:04:15long they were the most advanced humans
- 00:04:18on Earth until we
- 00:04:20arve and then they
- 00:04:23vanished
- 00:04:26why finally we're unearthing the answers
- 00:04:29the the remains of a 100,000 yearold
- 00:04:32child are revealing what we had that
- 00:04:35they didn't essential to figure out what
- 00:04:38are the differences between the neand
- 00:04:41and us to to figure out what is special
- 00:04:44about us was it some new physical
- 00:04:48ability or was it a new way of
- 00:04:51thinking these questions go to the heart
- 00:04:54of what makes us
- 00:04:56human to answer them we must travel back
- 00:04:59in time to the beginning of our human
- 00:05:05story imagine the entire span of
- 00:05:08recorded human history taking us back to
- 00:05:11the Egyptian pyramids 5,000 years
- 00:05:14ago double it 10,000 years ago when
- 00:05:18plants were domesticated and agriculture
- 00:05:21begins double it again to the time when
- 00:05:24Ice Age Hunters paint stunning images on
- 00:05:27Cave walls and keep doubling six more
- 00:05:30times and we are finally entering the
- 00:05:32world of homo erectus the remarkable
- 00:05:36ancestor who pioneered what it means to
- 00:05:39be
- 00:05:41[Music]
- 00:05:50human Homo erectus appeared on the
- 00:05:53African plains almost 2 million years
- 00:05:56ago they were the first ancestors who
- 00:05:59had B bodies like ours they were hunter
- 00:06:02gatherers and Tool
- 00:06:04makers beings who lived in social
- 00:06:08groups and cared for each
- 00:06:12other the most famous Homo erectus is
- 00:06:16the fossil called turab
- 00:06:18[Music]
- 00:06:22boy well tab boy and his ancestors they
- 00:06:27represent a threshold they represent
- 00:06:30that that point in our Evolution when we
- 00:06:33were we weren't quite fully a human but
- 00:06:35we were no longer an
- 00:06:37ape paleo artist Victor deck specializes
- 00:06:41in creating scientifically based
- 00:06:43sculptures of ancient humans from their
- 00:06:46fossil
- 00:06:47remains as he reconstructs turab boy's
- 00:06:50head aplike features
- 00:06:53emerge heavy brow ridges a protruding
- 00:06:57lower face
- 00:06:59a skull still smaller than our
- 00:07:03own but despite these differences turab
- 00:07:07boy is definitely starting to look like
- 00:07:09a human
- 00:07:11being and behind those eyes his mind was
- 00:07:15becoming human too I suspect that
- 00:07:19complex feelings and and behaviors had
- 00:07:23their Beginnings with tabo's kind and
- 00:07:27that what it is to truly be a human
- 00:07:30had its bubblings at that
- 00:07:34point it was probably Homo erectus
- 00:07:38almost 2 million years ago who first
- 00:07:40started to leave
- 00:07:42Africa ever since Africa has been the
- 00:07:45engine of our
- 00:07:47Evolution pumping out wave after wave
- 00:07:50ancient humans who populated Europe and
- 00:07:54Asia settling in far off places they
- 00:07:57developed in their own special
- 00:08:00Wes an early wave gave rise in Indonesia
- 00:08:04to the extraordinary
- 00:08:06Hobbit perhaps a type of dwarf Homo
- 00:08:11erectus another wave took Homo erectus
- 00:08:14all the way to China where fossil
- 00:08:17remains have been dated to over
- 00:08:20700,000 years
- 00:08:23ago soon after another wave left Africa
- 00:08:28this time heading for
- 00:08:30Europe This was the species that would
- 00:08:33one day give rise to the
- 00:08:37Neanderthals ever since the first skull
- 00:08:40was discovered in heidleberg Germany
- 00:08:42they have been called homo
- 00:08:45heidelbergensis but almost nothing was
- 00:08:48known about them until one extraordinary
- 00:08:52find was
- 00:08:56made at aera in Northern
- 00:09:02Spain these Rolling Hills have turned
- 00:09:05out to be an archaeological goal
- 00:09:08mine when a railway was built over a 100
- 00:09:11years ago it cut right through the hills
- 00:09:15archaeologists later discovered this had
- 00:09:18exposed over a million years of ancient
- 00:09:21human
- 00:09:23habitation including the oldest human
- 00:09:25remains in Europe
- 00:09:29nearby on the crest of one of the hills
- 00:09:32they also found the entrance to some
- 00:09:36caves to explore them took years but it
- 00:09:40has been worth
- 00:09:43it they have discovered a Labyrinth of
- 00:09:46Chambers and corridors reaching far
- 00:09:49inside the
- 00:09:51hills at the end of the labyrinth is one
- 00:09:54of the most inaccessible archaeological
- 00:09:56sites in the world a treasure Grove of
- 00:09:59human fossils they call the pit of
- 00:10:04[Music]
- 00:10:07Bones this is the entrance to the whole
- 00:10:10system the pit itself is very far from
- 00:10:18here it is a long way and in some places
- 00:10:22they have to
- 00:10:23crawl it's a difficult place to
- 00:10:27work today today it takes half an hour
- 00:10:31of walking crawling and scrambling in
- 00:10:34the dark to reach the 50-ft vertical
- 00:10:36shaft that drops into the
- 00:10:39pit but it took almost 10 years for the
- 00:10:42sight to give up its
- 00:10:47secrets we started to find a small
- 00:10:50pieces of human bones difficult to
- 00:10:53recognize at the beginning because they
- 00:10:55were very
- 00:10:57fragmentary but so many tiny fragments
- 00:11:01made them think they were on to
- 00:11:02something big even without talking each
- 00:11:06other we started to think that maybe
- 00:11:09there were down there
- 00:11:15skeletons as bone after bone came out of
- 00:11:18the pit they realized they had not one
- 00:11:22but many complete skeletons
- 00:11:31we have around 30 complete skeletons
- 00:11:33half a million years old and this is
- 00:11:36absolutely
- 00:11:38unique these are the skeletons of the
- 00:11:41ancestors called homo H highle bensis
- 00:11:44one of the earliest to populate
- 00:11:46Europe but why were so many complete
- 00:11:49skeletons collected in one
- 00:11:53place Juan Louise AR swaga believes they
- 00:11:56were put there intentionally by their
- 00:11:58kin
- 00:12:03half a million years ago the pit of
- 00:12:05Bones now deep under ground had an
- 00:12:08opening to the
- 00:12:10surface perhaps homo H highle bensis
- 00:12:13dropped the bodies into the pit in a
- 00:12:16sort of primitive
- 00:12:18[Music]
- 00:12:19burial and there is evidence it may have
- 00:12:22been
- 00:12:27ceremonial along with the bones Juan
- 00:12:29Lise found a single
- 00:12:32artifact a hand axe made of pink
- 00:12:38quartz a mineral which must have been
- 00:12:40brought from a long way
- 00:12:42away the team called it Excalibur after
- 00:12:46King Arthur's famous
- 00:12:49sword they believe it was an offer the
- 00:12:53first symbol ever
- 00:12:56found if this is right here were beings
- 00:12:59with complex Minds capable of symbolism
- 00:13:03and
- 00:13:06belief the half a million years ago in
- 00:13:09these European
- 00:13:10populations there was planning there was
- 00:13:14Consciousness there was a human mind and
- 00:13:18uh there was also symbolic
- 00:13:23Behavior we used to think these
- 00:13:26qualities belonged only to us homo sapi
- 00:13:30that the earliest evidence for them was
- 00:13:32in the painted caves of Southern France
- 00:13:35just 30,000 years
- 00:13:39ago but the extraordinary finds at atera
- 00:13:43may have pushed the beginnings of that
- 00:13:45mental Evolution back almost half a
- 00:13:48million
- 00:13:50years homo heidelbergensis would
- 00:13:53continue to evolve eventually becoming
- 00:13:56the species who would populate Europe
- 00:13:59the
- 00:14:01Neanderthals of all ancient humans the
- 00:14:05Neanderthals were the closest to
- 00:14:07us their brains were slightly larger
- 00:14:10than ours their short heavys set bodies
- 00:14:14helped them survive repeated ice ages
- 00:14:17they were Hunters living off the big
- 00:14:20game that roam the edges of the great
- 00:14:22ice sheets covering Europe and Central
- 00:14:27Asia when the and fossils were first
- 00:14:31discovered Darwin had yet to publish his
- 00:14:33theory of
- 00:14:34evolution the idea that modern humans
- 00:14:37had descended from more primitive forms
- 00:14:40would generate Furious
- 00:14:45controversy this is the skull of Angus 2
- 00:14:48it is the first nandal fossil ever found
- 00:14:51on Earth it was discovered at the end of
- 00:14:561829 but back then people were not happy
- 00:14:59with the idea that this could be a human
- 00:15:02being like
- 00:15:04us many claimed that the Neanderthals
- 00:15:07were just diseased misshapen
- 00:15:10humans then as evolutionary ideas took
- 00:15:14hold people wondered if they were the
- 00:15:16missing link between us and the Apes if
- 00:15:20we go back to the the beginning of the
- 00:15:2220th century nandor were seen as sort of
- 00:15:26apik
- 00:15:27creatures but since then hundreds of
- 00:15:30fossil fines have revealed their
- 00:15:32physical similarities to
- 00:15:35us after the the 70s uh there was a
- 00:15:39so-called Rehabilitation of the nandor
- 00:15:42so we tend to see them in in a more
- 00:15:45human
- 00:15:46way but did they think and act like
- 00:15:51us today the remains of a young boy who
- 00:15:55died 100,000 years ago are helping
- 00:15:58research penetrate the mysteries of the
- 00:16:01Neanderthal
- 00:16:05mine the M Valley in
- 00:16:08[Music]
- 00:16:10Belgium it was caves and rock shelters
- 00:16:13here that gave up the very first
- 00:16:14Neanderthal fossils 150 years
- 00:16:20ago today they are revealing deeper
- 00:16:23secrets of the Neanderthal world
- 00:16:28[Music]
- 00:16:31for over 20 years Michel Tusa and
- 00:16:34Dominic Balon have been Excavating a
- 00:16:36cave called
- 00:16:39[Music]
- 00:16:44sadina 1 mm at a time they've been
- 00:16:48sifting through the debris that once
- 00:16:49filled the
- 00:16:52cave their painstaking work paid off
- 00:16:59I've had the chance to be present when
- 00:17:01one of my students have discovered the
- 00:17:03ne child and when we have come there and
- 00:17:06see that this piece well we were so
- 00:17:09surprised we couldn't
- 00:17:13believe what they uncovered was the
- 00:17:16Jawbone of a young boy 100,000 years
- 00:17:21old nearby they found more fragments and
- 00:17:25teeth until they had almost a complete
- 00:17:28mouth
- 00:17:31since then they've been trying to
- 00:17:33reconstruct the life the boy from
- 00:17:39slad they know the woodlands and caves
- 00:17:42of the MS Valley were his
- 00:17:46home he probably lived here with his
- 00:17:48extended
- 00:17:49[Music]
- 00:17:51family already he would have been
- 00:17:53learning from his father the skills to
- 00:17:56become a hunter
- 00:17:59but what else can we infer about his way
- 00:18:02of
- 00:18:04life his bones are full of
- 00:18:08Clues and new techniques are allowing
- 00:18:11scientists to decipher
- 00:18:16them Michelle is taking a piece of the
- 00:18:19jaw to one of the few places in the
- 00:18:21world where the test SE needs can be
- 00:18:23done
- 00:18:25[Music]
- 00:18:29the max plank Institute in lepic Germany
- 00:18:32is one of the world's foremost centers
- 00:18:35for human evolutionary
- 00:18:38studies here the jaw bone of the child
- 00:18:41from scladina is put through a
- 00:18:44high-powered CT
- 00:18:47scan this allows researchers to peer
- 00:18:50into the internal structure of the teeth
- 00:18:53and
- 00:18:56Bone so this is the the mandible that
- 00:19:00was scanned yesterday the scan mandible
- 00:19:03and we have built up what we call a
- 00:19:06surface model which is basically a
- 00:19:08virtual representation of the mandible
- 00:19:11in a computer we can separate all the
- 00:19:14teeth from the bone in the specimen the
- 00:19:17features that we can explore show us how
- 00:19:22uh nandal are similar to us in in many
- 00:19:25aspects but also how they are different
- 00:19:29the teeth of children are among the most
- 00:19:32prized of all archaeological
- 00:19:36finds because only they can tell us how
- 00:19:39fast those children were growing
- 00:19:42up if we look at the pattern of eruption
- 00:19:46of the te the scladina
- 00:19:48child by Modern Standard should be about
- 00:19:5111 or 12 years
- 00:19:55old the second m is is almost completely
- 00:20:00erupted uh but when we look at the
- 00:20:02internal structures of the enamel and
- 00:20:05Dentin it has been shown that it's it's
- 00:20:08in fact much younger we know that this
- 00:20:11child died around 8 years
- 00:20:14old although the boy from sadina would
- 00:20:17have looked like us he probably grew up
- 00:20:20much more
- 00:20:23quickly that means he had much less time
- 00:20:26for brain development and learning
- 00:20:30but is it safe to assume the
- 00:20:32Neanderthals were less intelligent than
- 00:20:35we
- 00:20:36are the crucial evidence comes from
- 00:20:44skulls endocasts Impressions taken from
- 00:20:47the inside of Neanderthal skull have
- 00:20:50revealed brains with many similarities
- 00:20:52to ours when we look at the neandertal
- 00:20:55endocast we find a frontal LOE that we
- 00:20:58can't really differentiate from Modern
- 00:21:00Homo sapiens the brokest caps that have
- 00:21:03to do with the motor control motor
- 00:21:06aspects of speech are thoroughly human
- 00:21:09in terms of their
- 00:21:11form so if the front of the Neanderthal
- 00:21:14brain is similar to ours what about the
- 00:21:17rest of
- 00:21:18[Music]
- 00:21:20it today scientists like Catarina
- 00:21:23havarti are trying to measure fossil
- 00:21:25skulls with new precision
- 00:21:28[Music]
- 00:21:30she uses a special instrument to
- 00:21:32digitize the skulls and create perfect
- 00:21:35three-dimensional
- 00:21:37[Music]
- 00:21:38images we've known for a long time that
- 00:21:41nanital look different from modern
- 00:21:42humans ever since they were first
- 00:21:44discovered and described but the
- 00:21:46question then becomes what does this
- 00:21:48difference actually
- 00:21:50mean this is a digitized 3D image of our
- 00:21:54own
- 00:21:55skull with its characteristic High Dome
- 00:22:00by contrast the Neanderthal skull is low
- 00:22:04and elongated possibly indicating a
- 00:22:07different brain
- 00:22:08shape the parts of the Neanderthal brain
- 00:22:11called the parietal and temporal loaves
- 00:22:14may have been slightly
- 00:22:16smaller that small difference could have
- 00:22:19had a large impact on their mental
- 00:22:21ability there are regions of the prial
- 00:22:24loes and the temporal loes that are very
- 00:22:25important in cognition particularly in
- 00:22:27terms of language in memory and
- 00:22:30remembering spatial
- 00:22:32locations the reduced size of those
- 00:22:35regions of Neanderthal brains might be a
- 00:22:37sign of limited thinking
- 00:22:42Powers but the boy from scad's Jawbone
- 00:22:45has more to tell us about other
- 00:22:51limitations back at the max plank
- 00:22:54Institute Mike Richards is delving even
- 00:22:56deeper into the micro structure of the
- 00:22:59bone to find out about his
- 00:23:02diet the food we eat leaves a chemical
- 00:23:05signature in our bodies these signatures
- 00:23:08are incorporated into the protein of our
- 00:23:11bones so what we do is get the bone and
- 00:23:13we take that protein out and measure
- 00:23:14those signatures we can work backwards
- 00:23:16and say this is the food that this human
- 00:23:18ate over their
- 00:23:19lifetime he's discovering that
- 00:23:21neanderthals were almost exclusively
- 00:23:24meat eaters although there were many
- 00:23:27fruits berries and Ed roots in their
- 00:23:30environment we don't see any evidence
- 00:23:33that plant protein was at all important
- 00:23:34in their diet and it doesn't look like
- 00:23:36they had marine food at all they were
- 00:23:38hunting large herbivores like bison or
- 00:23:41reindeer and things like
- 00:23:43that they were carnivores with a diet
- 00:23:46closer to that of a predator like a wolf
- 00:23:49than a human and they showed few signs
- 00:23:52of change no matter where they
- 00:23:55live so far we' measured the type
- 00:23:57specimen from Germany that the Neals
- 00:23:59from sadina Neals from France and
- 00:24:01Croatia over about 100,000 years and in
- 00:24:03every case in all these different
- 00:24:04environments the Neals do same
- 00:24:07thing so the bones of the boy from
- 00:24:10scladina and his people are revealing
- 00:24:13important Clues to Neanderthal
- 00:24:17Behavior they did one thing hunting
- 00:24:20large game and they just kept on doing
- 00:24:23it for hundreds of thousands of years
- 00:24:28their technology tells a similar
- 00:24:32story Nal technology is is quick and
- 00:24:34dirty it's simple there's very few tools
- 00:24:37that nals made that one can't copy in a
- 00:24:40few seconds or even minutes although
- 00:24:43they hunted large animals they didn't
- 00:24:45have throwing Spears or
- 00:24:47arrows none of the the stone tools that
- 00:24:50the Nars made are the size and shape
- 00:24:53sufficient to be a projectile point
- 00:24:54they're all too big which suggests
- 00:24:56they're either knives or tips of
- 00:24:58trusting
- 00:25:01Spears that meant Neanderthal Hunters
- 00:25:04had to get close to their prey to kill
- 00:25:06them which made hunting a risky
- 00:25:12business most Neanderthal male skeletons
- 00:25:15have multiple
- 00:25:20fractures Neanderthal lines were tough
- 00:25:24and they were short
- 00:25:26[Music]
- 00:25:29their skeletons tell us that very few
- 00:25:32lived beyond the age of
- 00:25:3630 but as a species the Neanderthals
- 00:25:40were long lived they lasted for almost
- 00:25:43400,000 years that's twice as long as we
- 00:25:47have but one day their time on Earth
- 00:25:50would come to an
- 00:25:52end by 25,000 years ago they vanish from
- 00:25:57the fossil record
- 00:25:59so what
- 00:26:04happened to find out we have to return
- 00:26:07to
- 00:26:12Africa the Great Rift Valley the stage
- 00:26:16on which so much of human evolution has
- 00:26:19played
- 00:26:20[Music]
- 00:26:24out it was here millions of years ago
- 00:26:27that nature began its Grand experiment
- 00:26:31with creatures like Lucy who walked
- 00:26:35upright it was here just over a million
- 00:26:38years ago that turab boy and his kind
- 00:26:42with their bigger brains and bodies
- 00:26:44formed the first hunter gatherer
- 00:26:49society and it was here about 200,000
- 00:26:53years ago that the skulls of a new
- 00:26:56species start to be found
- 00:26:59the last human to evolve Homo
- 00:27:03sapiens they are still not completely us
- 00:27:07their brow ridges are a little heavier
- 00:27:10their faces a little bigger and their
- 00:27:12technology is still simple you have
- 00:27:15stone tools made by nals and stone tools
- 00:27:17made by Homo sapiens and they're
- 00:27:20identical you can't tell which one made
- 00:27:21the stone tools cuz they're making the
- 00:27:23same kinds of
- 00:27:25tools so what changed what made us into
- 00:27:29the versatile beings we are
- 00:27:32today all the evidence points to climate
- 00:27:35appe we enter one of the longest coldest
- 00:27:39glacial stages on record around 200,000
- 00:27:43years ago vast ice sheets
- 00:27:46descend in Africa Mega droughts turn
- 00:27:50much of the continent into a
- 00:27:56desert and so basically you've got this
- 00:27:58double whammy of climatic challenges
- 00:28:00slamming the African population and the
- 00:28:01people
- 00:28:03dwindle geneticist Spencer Wells
- 00:28:06believes that ancient population crashes
- 00:28:09have left a footprint in our genes it's
- 00:28:12called the bottleneck
- 00:28:15effect humans although on the surface we
- 00:28:18seem to be so different from each other
- 00:28:19actually have remarkably little genetic
- 00:28:21diversity were 99.9%
- 00:28:25identical you look at other Apes like
- 00:28:27chimps or G gorillas or ruttin they have
- 00:28:29between four and 10 times as much
- 00:28:31diversity at the DNA
- 00:28:34level the lack of diversity in human DNA
- 00:28:38is a clue to a crisis that may have
- 00:28:41wiped out whole
- 00:28:45populations reason that we have so
- 00:28:47little diversity at the genetic level is
- 00:28:49because we lost it at some
- 00:28:51point imagine that this bottle of jelly
- 00:28:54beans is the initial population you've
- 00:28:55got so much diversity in here what
- 00:28:58happens during a bottleneck when you go
- 00:28:59through the bottleneck only a few of the
- 00:29:01lineages survive so that's the drop in
- 00:29:03population size right there everyone
- 00:29:06alive today is a descendant of these
- 00:29:08individuals and you can see that we're
- 00:29:09missing many of the colors that you see
- 00:29:10in the initial population that's how a
- 00:29:12bottleneck works and everybody alive
- 00:29:14today is a descendant of that small
- 00:29:16number of individuals who made it
- 00:29:17through the
- 00:29:23bottleneck ancient climate data shows
- 00:29:25that around 140,000 years ago most of
- 00:29:29tropical Africa became
- 00:29:35uninhabitable our ancestors were forced
- 00:29:38to seek refuge on coasts and
- 00:29:43Highlands it looks like four to six
- 00:29:46potential locations in Africa that would
- 00:29:49still be supportive of Hunter gather
- 00:29:53populations despite the refuges there is
- 00:29:57evidence our our ancestors were pushed
- 00:29:59to the brink of
- 00:30:03Extinction the genetic record shows us
- 00:30:06that all modern humans are descended
- 00:30:07from a small population of approximately
- 00:30:10600 breeding individuals there's
- 00:30:12disagreement about the numbers and
- 00:30:14timing but it does seem that all people
- 00:30:17on Earth are descended from a very small
- 00:30:20original population in
- 00:30:24Africa Curtis Marian believes they live
- 00:30:27on the south African Coastal and that it
- 00:30:30was life by the sea that forced them to
- 00:30:35[Music]
- 00:30:36change at Pinnacle Point South Africa he
- 00:30:39has found caves used by early Homo
- 00:30:42sapiens ancestors during the mega
- 00:30:44drought
- 00:30:47period they're full of clues that hint
- 00:30:50at new ways of thinking and
- 00:30:53behaving here he has found some of the
- 00:30:56earliest evidence that humans were
- 00:30:59living off the
- 00:31:00sea this darkish material here is is ash
- 00:31:04from a
- 00:31:05fireplace and the vast majority of this
- 00:31:08material is is burnt shell so clearly
- 00:31:11there was quite a bit of uh of cooking
- 00:31:14of shellfish that was taking place at
- 00:31:15this this exact spot 76,000 years
- 00:31:20ago somebody had a a nice shellfish
- 00:31:23dinner
- 00:31:26there he here was a population that was
- 00:31:29broadening its diet away from
- 00:31:33meat requiring Ingenuity unknown among
- 00:31:37earlier
- 00:31:40ancestors you go out to collect
- 00:31:42shellfish at the wrong time you're dead
- 00:31:45you have to be able to time your access
- 00:31:47to the coastline so that you are here
- 00:31:48when the tides are right to collect
- 00:31:50those
- 00:31:53shellfish the best time to collect
- 00:31:55shellfish is at extreme low time
- 00:32:00and to predict those it helps to
- 00:32:03understand the cycles of the
- 00:32:07Moon those are the times that you want
- 00:32:09to be collecting shellfish all the
- 00:32:11shellfish are exposed so this water
- 00:32:13which you see here is out there at that
- 00:32:16point where that rock is so the smart
- 00:32:18Coastal Hunter gather knows how to use
- 00:32:21the moon to signal to them when to come
- 00:32:24to the coastline to collect the
- 00:32:26shellfish
- 00:32:29the people of Pinnacle Point were not
- 00:32:32just harvesting shellfish they were also
- 00:32:35hunting on the planes behind the coast
- 00:32:37and Gathering berries and Roots their
- 00:32:40way of life reflected a new
- 00:32:44versatility the systematic use of
- 00:32:47coastal resources does suggest a a
- 00:32:50cognitive
- 00:32:52complexity our ancestors occupied these
- 00:32:55caves for over 100 40,000 years leaving
- 00:33:00behind an amazing record of their
- 00:33:06transformation this site documents a
- 00:33:08change in the way that people made stone
- 00:33:10tools at the bottom of the sequence they
- 00:33:13made stone tools with this rough
- 00:33:14Quartzsite material and then right at
- 00:33:17about 71,000 years ago which occurs just
- 00:33:20about there in the sequence they make a
- 00:33:23shift to making stone tools on this silr
- 00:33:27in the form of long thin blades before
- 00:33:30flaking it the people here were heating
- 00:33:32this material in the fire and through
- 00:33:35heating it improved its fakability and
- 00:33:37that was at about 71,000 years ago about
- 00:33:4040,000 years older than that has been
- 00:33:42found anywhere else in the
- 00:33:44world the technology of our ancestors
- 00:33:47was expanding from the single allpurpose
- 00:33:50hand ax to a variety of lighter
- 00:33:54specialized
- 00:33:55tools then they started to make these
- 00:33:57kinds of things they made tools with
- 00:34:00special little points for Perforating
- 00:34:02tasks like this they made others with
- 00:34:05special little chisel ends for carving
- 00:34:10tasks specialized tools allowed our
- 00:34:13ancestors to get more out of their
- 00:34:15environment but this wasn't the only
- 00:34:19change at this point we begin to see
- 00:34:22people treating stone tools as symbols
- 00:34:24they're making them more complex than
- 00:34:26they need to be to accomplish a
- 00:34:27particular cutting task so at this point
- 00:34:30stone tools are no longer just tools for
- 00:34:31cutting things they're instruments of of
- 00:34:34carrying social information about their
- 00:34:39owners a new type of symbolic
- 00:34:41Consciousness was
- 00:34:43emerging the first evidence of
- 00:34:46decorative art made from a naturally
- 00:34:48occurring mineral called red ochre has
- 00:34:51been found at blombos another cave along
- 00:34:54the South African Coast
- 00:34:59while we were Excavating more or less in
- 00:35:01this area you can see over here we found
- 00:35:04a chunk of ochre and when we brushed up
- 00:35:09the surface of the ochre uh we realized
- 00:35:12that there was actually a design on the
- 00:35:14one
- 00:35:15side and once we looked at it in more
- 00:35:19detail held it up to the
- 00:35:21light uh we could see a cross-hatch
- 00:35:24pattern that had lines zigzagged across
- 00:35:29the surface of this flat ground
- 00:35:32surface um and also had lines across the
- 00:35:35top through the middle and along the
- 00:35:37bottom and you can imagine there was
- 00:35:40enormous excitement because we did not
- 00:35:44expect to find um something that might
- 00:35:47represent a symbolic image uh in these
- 00:35:5175,000 level so uh this really was an
- 00:35:56enormous an enormous surprise
- 00:35:58forness at blombos they've also found
- 00:36:01shells with holes drilled in them
- 00:36:03believed to have been used for
- 00:36:07necklaces so our ancestors were now
- 00:36:10wearing ornaments and probably painting
- 00:36:12their bodies as
- 00:36:14well for me what is really important is
- 00:36:17here for the first time really ever we
- 00:36:20have evidence that people can store
- 00:36:23information outside of the human brain
- 00:36:27[Music]
- 00:36:29it is the birth of a new type of human
- 00:36:34culture more complex but easier to pass
- 00:36:38on from generation to
- 00:36:46generation 60,000 years ago our
- 00:36:49ancestors emerged with new technology
- 00:36:52and new
- 00:36:54culture thousands of years of drought
- 00:36:56had forced them to
- 00:37:00change they were ready to explore the
- 00:37:03world as the climate improved they
- 00:37:06started to stream Out of
- 00:37:09[Music]
- 00:37:12Africa they might have been surprised to
- 00:37:15discover continents already populated by
- 00:37:17other
- 00:37:18humans remnants of earlier more
- 00:37:21primitive
- 00:37:25migrations as they moved into Asia they
- 00:37:28might have come across Homo erectus or
- 00:37:30the tiny
- 00:37:32Hobbit there's no evidence for such a
- 00:37:35meeting but there is one encounter we
- 00:37:38can be more certain
- 00:37:41about as a separate waves slowly move
- 00:37:45through the Middle East into
- 00:37:47Europe they must have met the
- 00:37:53Neanderthals what were those meetings
- 00:37:55like
- 00:37:58for many years scientists speculated
- 00:38:00that early Homo sapiens populations
- 00:38:03absorbed the Neanderthals through
- 00:38:07interbreeding if they did there would be
- 00:38:10traces of Neanderthal DNA in our genes
- 00:38:17today but there was no way to detect
- 00:38:19Neanderthal DNA until researchers at the
- 00:38:22max plank Institute set out on a daring
- 00:38:26scientific Odyssey
- 00:38:28the quest to sequence the Neanderthal
- 00:38:36genome the human genome contains
- 00:38:39approximately 3 billion chemical bases
- 00:38:42the A's T's C's and G's that make up our
- 00:38:47gen mapping that was hard
- 00:38:50[Music]
- 00:38:51enough the idea of mapping the Genome of
- 00:38:54a long extinct species seemed seemed
- 00:38:57Pure
- 00:38:59Fantasy but that didn't stop Santi Pabo
- 00:39:02from dreaming about
- 00:39:04it the first problem was to get DNA from
- 00:39:08Neanderthal bones over 30,000 years
- 00:39:12old in most cases DNA degrades steadily
- 00:39:16over time leaving only minute
- 00:39:19fragments my group is involved since
- 00:39:22over 20 years now in developing
- 00:39:24techniques to retrieve ancient DNA from
- 00:39:27fossils and old bones and of course
- 00:39:30always a dream was to do the neandertal
- 00:39:32our closest
- 00:39:36relative but finally taking great care
- 00:39:39not to contaminate it with their own
- 00:39:41they isolated the first piece of
- 00:39:44Neanderthal
- 00:39:48DNA spon's dream is now a
- 00:39:52reality he and his team have made a
- 00:39:55draft of the entire neand Thal
- 00:40:00genome now scientists all over the world
- 00:40:03can compare key parts of it to the human
- 00:40:08genome and one such comparison is
- 00:40:11already giving us deeper insight into
- 00:40:14the Neanderthal brain the gene called
- 00:40:18Fox
- 00:40:18P2 it's the only Gene we know of today
- 00:40:22that's involved in speech and language
- 00:40:24development in humans we know that
- 00:40:26because if one copy is lost in a human
- 00:40:28due to a mutation who have a severe
- 00:40:31speech
- 00:40:33problem when first discovered Fox P2
- 00:40:36created a lot of excitement although
- 00:40:39many animals have the fox P2 Gene the
- 00:40:42human version is
- 00:40:45unique some thought it was the gene for
- 00:40:50language we now know that complex traits
- 00:40:53like language are controlled by many gen
- 00:40:56yet researchers are agree the human
- 00:40:58version of fox P2 is closely tied to
- 00:41:01some of the basic motor skills necessary
- 00:41:04for
- 00:41:09speech and the big question was of
- 00:41:11course is that shared with neander TOS
- 00:41:13or
- 00:41:15not and when we now look at it in the
- 00:41:18neander tall indeed it looks to be
- 00:41:21identical with
- 00:41:22us it's tantalizing evidence that
- 00:41:25despite their mental limitations
- 00:41:27the boy from scladina and his people may
- 00:41:30have been able to
- 00:41:34speak if we share the capacity for
- 00:41:36language with the
- 00:41:38Neanderthals could we both have
- 00:41:39inherited it from the same Source a
- 00:41:43common ancestor who gave rise to both
- 00:41:46species who was
- 00:41:49it with a technique called the molecular
- 00:41:52clock scientists can now find out that's
- 00:41:56because DNA mutated Ates or changes at a
- 00:41:58surprisingly regular rate by counting
- 00:42:02the differences in the genetic code of
- 00:42:04Neanderthal and ourselves simply
- 00:42:07comparing the A's T's C's and G's in our
- 00:42:11DNA scientists can calculate how long
- 00:42:14the two species have been
- 00:42:18diverging we can then estimate when
- 00:42:21there was a common ancestral population
- 00:42:23where some individuals went on to become
- 00:42:26modern humans some went on to become the
- 00:42:29under
- 00:42:30tals is in the order of say 300,000
- 00:42:34400,000 years
- 00:42:37ago the timing points straight to the
- 00:42:39Intriguing ancestors who left Africa
- 00:42:42half a million years ago and buried
- 00:42:45their dead in the hills of Northern
- 00:42:48Spain leaving a distinctive pink hand ax
- 00:42:52at the spot
- 00:42:55[Music]
- 00:42:57this is homo heidle
- 00:43:01bensis who we now know is our ancestor
- 00:43:05[Music]
- 00:43:08too in Europe they evolved into the
- 00:43:12Neanderthal in Africa groups that had
- 00:43:15not yet migrated evolved into Homo
- 00:43:19sapiens so DNA is revealing we share a
- 00:43:23common ancestor with the Neanderthals
- 00:43:27but do we carry some vestage of
- 00:43:29Neanderthal DNA in our genes proof that
- 00:43:33we absorb them by Inner
- 00:43:38breeding some people claim that there
- 00:43:40are some hybrids of neand and modern
- 00:43:42humans in the in the genetical record we
- 00:43:45don't see clear evidence of that the big
- 00:43:48story is that they were nandor they were
- 00:43:50replaced by other people and and and
- 00:43:52after a rather short time we don't see
- 00:43:55any trace of the
- 00:43:57in Europe and certainly today we don't
- 00:43:59see really traces of neand
- 00:44:02genes with no evidence of inner breeding
- 00:44:05it now seems more likely that as our
- 00:44:07population grew we simply pushed the
- 00:44:10Neanderthals out of their
- 00:44:13environments humans have a very
- 00:44:15intensive way of using the environment
- 00:44:17we seem to have the ability to pump out
- 00:44:20lots of babies and our babies seem to
- 00:44:22have a high probability of surviving so
- 00:44:24population growth is a really important
- 00:44:26part of the of the human
- 00:44:29adaptation the arrival of homo sapiens
- 00:44:32was not the only thing the Neanderthals
- 00:44:34had to contend
- 00:44:36with Europe was gripped by wild climate
- 00:44:41swings the Neanderthals were already
- 00:44:44struggling to
- 00:44:45survive probably the density of
- 00:44:48Neanderthals in the in the landscape uh
- 00:44:51was very
- 00:44:54low and there was a good reason for that
- 00:44:57Neanderthal technology was limited and
- 00:45:00their energy needs were
- 00:45:03huge they had this big body this big
- 00:45:06brain living in a rather cold
- 00:45:07environment so we we have estimates of
- 00:45:10their uh energy consumption every day
- 00:45:14it's about 5,000 kilo calories it's
- 00:45:17about what what someone racing the tour
- 00:45:20def France is spending every
- 00:45:22[Music]
- 00:45:24day but with Slimmer taller IES modern
- 00:45:28humans had lower energy demands and an
- 00:45:31Ever improving
- 00:45:32toolkit they now developed yet another
- 00:45:35breakthrough
- 00:45:36technology projectile weapons throwing
- 00:45:43Spears these are two very different
- 00:45:45kinds of Spears these are the big heavy
- 00:45:48wooden Spears that deander TS and their
- 00:45:49ancestors used these are the lighter
- 00:45:52bone tip Spears that homo sapiens used
- 00:45:55these weapons have different kind of per
- 00:45:56performance characteristics the the
- 00:45:58heavy Spears are effective but they're
- 00:46:00effective at a very short range and
- 00:46:01they're heavy you can only carry so many
- 00:46:03of them in one
- 00:46:05hand the bone tip Spears are lighter
- 00:46:08they're more
- 00:46:09durable they have a longer effective
- 00:46:12range in essence the the bone tip Spears
- 00:46:15that our ancestors use allow them to
- 00:46:17hunt a wider range of animals more
- 00:46:19safely and therefore to have a broader
- 00:46:21ecological
- 00:46:25niche these big heavy spe Spears with
- 00:46:27their you know their weight their
- 00:46:29relatively short range it's like hunting
- 00:46:31with a pistol whereas using these things
- 00:46:33is like hunting with a semi-automatic
- 00:46:35rifle one has more than one shot one has
- 00:46:37greater range it's a more effective
- 00:46:40weapon throwing Spears allowed our
- 00:46:43ancestors to go after a wider range of
- 00:46:46game with less risk to
- 00:46:49themselves the modern humans have this
- 00:46:51trend of intensifying their exploitation
- 00:46:55of the environment to sort of squeezing
- 00:46:58out everything possible from the
- 00:47:02environment that Trend already
- 00:47:04established in Africa would become more
- 00:47:07pronounced as our ancestors spread
- 00:47:09around the
- 00:47:12world archaeologists have been able to
- 00:47:14track their movements by the extinctions
- 00:47:17of large
- 00:47:20animals in Europe and Asia the arrival
- 00:47:23of homo sapiens coincides with the
- 00:47:26disappearing
- 00:47:27of the hairy Mammoth the Cav Line and
- 00:47:30other large
- 00:47:34mammal in Australia most animals
- 00:47:37weighing over 100 lb vanish within a few
- 00:47:41thousand years of our
- 00:47:43arrival the effects of homo sapiens on
- 00:47:46large animal communities become more
- 00:47:48profound As you move further and further
- 00:47:49from Africa so very few major
- 00:47:51extinctions in Africa a few of them few
- 00:47:53extinctions associated with Homo sapiens
- 00:47:55moving into Eurasia and then when they
- 00:47:57hit when they hit Australia in the new
- 00:47:59world it's a wipe
- 00:48:01out the Neanderthals were just one of
- 00:48:05many species that disappeared when we
- 00:48:08arrived gradually they were pushed into
- 00:48:11marginal areas of Europe their last
- 00:48:14Refuge seems to have been the Rock of
- 00:48:16Gibralter 28,000 years ago then they
- 00:48:23vanished leaving no Legacy but their
- 00:48:26fossilized
- 00:48:29bones for the first time there was only
- 00:48:32one type of human on the
- 00:48:36planet but these species it covered the
- 00:48:40whole planet it went to places where
- 00:48:43other hominines lived LED them to
- 00:48:45Extinction actually they went to
- 00:48:48Australia they went to Americas they
- 00:48:50went to the moon and they will go to
- 00:48:51Mars and and this is very peculiar
- 00:48:54because the way these species intensify
- 00:48:57its exploitation of the environment is
- 00:49:00really
- 00:49:01unique in the beginning climate
- 00:49:04upheavals made us what we
- 00:49:07are they taught us a new inventiveness
- 00:49:10which has led to a Cascade of
- 00:49:12technological
- 00:49:15advances but exactly what made us
- 00:49:18different is still an
- 00:49:20enigma soon we'll discover the genetic
- 00:49:23changes unique to our species
- 00:49:27but genes are only part of what makes us
- 00:49:31special the other part is that
- 00:49:33mysterious creation unique to
- 00:49:37humans
- 00:49:39culture Homo sapiens is the most
- 00:49:42adaptable species in the human career
- 00:49:46meaning that no matter what happens in
- 00:49:48the world we have a way of adapting to
- 00:49:50it today that way is called culture if
- 00:49:54glaciers came to Arizona where I live we
- 00:49:56wouldn't be growing thick fur and thick
- 00:49:59skin we would be building more
- 00:50:00fireplaces and heating
- 00:50:04systems culture is the storehouse of our
- 00:50:07complex ways of thinking and
- 00:50:11perceiving and we pass it on to our
- 00:50:13children as surely as we pass on our
- 00:50:17genes the ways in which cultural
- 00:50:20Evolution and genetic Evolution
- 00:50:23interact will be at the Forefront of the
- 00:50:26research search of
- 00:50:27tomorrow because one thing is for
- 00:50:30sure evolution is not stopping rate of
- 00:50:35evolution and the genomic level has
- 00:50:36increased over the last 10,000 years and
- 00:50:38it probably will continue over the next
- 00:50:40few thousand years where it will take us
- 00:50:44nobody
- 00:50:45knows but we're still a young species
- 00:50:49there is a long future ah
- 00:50:58[Applause]
- 00:51:14[Music]
- 00:51:17this Nova program is available on DVD
- 00:51:20and Blu-ray at shoppbs.org or call 1800
- 00:51:25playay PBS see
- 00:51:33[Music]
- 00:51:43[Music]
- evolução
- Homo sapiens
- Neandertais
- genética
- fósseis
- adaptação
- cultura
- tecnologia
- extinção
- ancestrais