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So I'd like you to imagine for a moment
00:00:15
that you're a soldier
in the heat of battle.
00:00:18
Maybe you're a Roman foot soldier
or a medieval archer
00:00:22
or maybe you're a Zulu warrior.
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Regardless of your time and place,
there are some things that are constant.
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Your adrenaline is elevated,
00:00:30
and your actions are stemming
from these deeply ingrained reflexes,
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reflexes rooted in a need
to protect yourself and your side
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and to defeat the enemy.
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So now, I'd like you to imagine
playing a very different role,
00:00:46
that of the scout.
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The scout's job is not
to attack or defend.
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The scout's job is to understand.
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The scout is the one going out,
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mapping the terrain,
identifying potential obstacles.
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And the scout may hope to learn
that, say, there's a bridge
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in a convenient location across a river.
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But above all, the scout
wants to know what's really there,
00:01:09
as accurately as possible.
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And in a real, actual army, both
the soldier and the scout are essential.
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But you can also think of each
of these roles as a mindset --
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a metaphor for how all of us
process information and ideas
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in our daily lives.
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What I'm going to argue today
is that having good judgment,
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making accurate predictions,
making good decisions,
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is mostly about which mindset you're in.
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To illustrate these mindsets in action,
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I'm going to take you back
to 19th-century France,
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where this innocuous-looking
piece of paper
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launched one of the biggest
political scandals in history.
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It was discovered in 1894
by officers in the French general staff.
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It was torn up in a wastepaper basket,
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but when they pieced it back together,
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they discovered
that someone in their ranks
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had been selling
military secrets to Germany.
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So they launched a big investigation,
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and their suspicions
quickly converged on this man,
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Alfred Dreyfus.
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He had a sterling record,
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no past history of wrongdoing,
no motive as far as they could tell.
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But Dreyfus was the only
Jewish officer at that rank in the army,
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and unfortunately at this time,
the French Army was highly anti-Semitic.
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They compared Dreyfus's handwriting
to that on the memo
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and concluded that it was a match,
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even though outside
professional handwriting experts
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were much less confident
in the similarity,
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but never mind that.
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They went and searched
Dreyfus's apartment,
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looking for any signs of espionage.
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They went through his files,
and they didn't find anything.
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This just convinced them more
that Dreyfus was not only guilty,
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but sneaky as well, because clearly
he had hidden all of the evidence
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before they had managed to get to it.
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Next, they went and looked
through his personal history
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for any incriminating details.
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They talked to his teachers,
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they found that he had studied
foreign languages in school,
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which clearly showed a desire
to conspire with foreign governments
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later in life.
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His teachers also said that Dreyfus
was known for having a good memory,
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which was highly suspicious, right?
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You know, because a spy
has to remember a lot of things.
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So the case went to trial,
and Dreyfus was found guilty.
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Afterwards, they took him out
into this public square
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and ritualistically tore
his insignia from his uniform
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and broke his sword in two.
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This was called
the Degradation of Dreyfus.
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And they sentenced him
to life imprisonment
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on the aptly named Devil's Island,
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which is this barren rock
off the coast of South America.
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So there he went,
and there he spent his days alone,
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writing letters and letters
to the French government
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begging them to reopen his case
so they could discover his innocence.
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But for the most part,
France considered the matter closed.
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One thing that's really interesting
to me about the Dreyfus Affair
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is this question of why the officers
were so convinced
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that Dreyfus was guilty.
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I mean, you might even assume
that they were setting him up,
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that they were intentionally framing him.
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But historians don't think
that's what happened.
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As far as we can tell,
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the officers genuinely believed
that the case against Dreyfus was strong.
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Which makes you wonder:
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What does it say about the human mind
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that we can find such paltry evidence
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to be compelling enough to convict a man?
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Well, this is a case of what scientists
call "motivated reasoning."
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It's this phenomenon in which
our unconscious motivations,
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our desires and fears,
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shape the way we interpret information.
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Some information, some ideas,
feel like our allies.
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We want them to win.
We want to defend them.
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And other information
or ideas are the enemy,
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and we want to shoot them down.
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So this is why I call
motivated reasoning, "soldier mindset."
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Probably most of you have never persecuted
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a French-Jewish officer for high treason,
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I assume,
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but maybe you've followed sports
or politics, so you might have noticed
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that when the referee judges
that your team committed a foul,
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for example,
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you're highly motivated
to find reasons why he's wrong.
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But if he judges that the other team
committed a foul -- awesome!
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That's a good call,
let's not examine it too closely.
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Or, maybe you've read
an article or a study
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that examined some controversial policy,
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like capital punishment.
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And, as researchers have demonstrated,
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if you support capital punishment
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and the study shows
that it's not effective,
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then you're highly motivated
to find all the reasons
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why the study was poorly designed.
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But if it shows
that capital punishment works,
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it's a good study.
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And vice versa: if you don't
support capital punishment, same thing.
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Our judgment is strongly
influenced, unconsciously,
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by which side we want to win.
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And this is ubiquitous.
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This shapes how we think
about our health, our relationships,
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how we decide how to vote,
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what we consider fair or ethical.
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What's most scary to me
about motivated reasoning
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or soldier mindset,
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is how unconscious it is.
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We can think we're being
objective and fair-minded
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and still wind up ruining the life
of an innocent man.
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However, fortunately for Dreyfus,
his story is not over.
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This is Colonel Picquart.
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He's another high-ranking officer
in the French Army,
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and like most people,
he assumed Dreyfus was guilty.
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Also like most people in the army,
he was at least casually anti-Semitic.
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But at a certain point,
Picquart began to suspect:
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"What if we're all wrong about Dreyfus?"
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What happened was,
he had discovered evidence
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that the spying for Germany had continued,
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even after Dreyfus was in prison.
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And he had also discovered
that another officer in the army
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had handwriting that perfectly
matched the memo,
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much closer than Dreyfus's handwriting.
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So he brought these discoveries
to his superiors,
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but to his dismay,
they either didn't care
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or came up with elaborate rationalizations
to explain his findings,
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like, "Well, all you've really shown,
Picquart, is that there's another spy
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who learned how to mimic
Dreyfus's handwriting,
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and he picked up the torch of spying
after Dreyfus left.
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But Dreyfus is still guilty."
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Eventually, Picquart managed
to get Dreyfus exonerated.
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But it took him 10 years,
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and for part of that time,
he himself was in prison
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for the crime of disloyalty to the army.
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A lot of people feel like Picquart
can't really be the hero of this story
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because he was an anti-Semite
and that's bad, which I agree with.
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But personally, for me,
the fact that Picquart was anti-Semitic
00:07:53
actually makes his actions more admirable,
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because he had the same prejudices,
the same reasons to be biased
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as his fellow officers,
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but his motivation to find the truth
and uphold it trumped all of that.
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So to me,
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Picquart is a poster child
for what I call "scout mindset."
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It's the drive not to make
one idea win or another lose,
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but just to see what's really there
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as honestly and accurately as you can,
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even if it's not pretty
or convenient or pleasant.
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This mindset is what
I'm personally passionate about.
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And I've spent the last few years
examining and trying to figure out
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what causes scout mindset.
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Why are some people, sometimes at least,
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able to cut through their own prejudices
and biases and motivations
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and just try to see the facts
and the evidence
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as objectively as they can?
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And the answer is emotional.
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So, just as soldier mindset
is rooted in emotions
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like defensiveness or tribalism,
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scout mindset is, too.
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It's just rooted in different emotions.
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For example, scouts are curious.
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They're more likely to say
they feel pleasure
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when they learn new information
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or an itch to solve a puzzle.
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They're more likely to feel intrigued
when they encounter something
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that contradicts their expectations.
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Scouts also have different values.
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They're more likely to say
they think it's virtuous
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to test your own beliefs,
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and they're less likely to say
that someone who changes his mind
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seems weak.
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And above all, scouts are grounded,
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which means their self-worth as a person
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isn't tied to how right or wrong
they are about any particular topic.
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So they can believe
that capital punishment works.
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If studies come out showing
that it doesn't, they can say,
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"Huh. Looks like I might be wrong.
Doesn't mean I'm bad or stupid."
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This cluster of traits
is what researchers have found --
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and I've also found anecdotally --
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predicts good judgment.
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And the key takeaway I want
to leave you with about those traits
00:10:05
is that they're primarily
not about how smart you are
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or about how much you know.
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In fact, they don't correlate
very much with IQ at all.
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They're about how you feel.
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There's a quote that I keep
coming back to, by Saint-Exupéry.
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He's the author of "The Little Prince."
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He said, "If you want to build a ship,
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don't drum up your men
to collect wood and give orders
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and distribute the work.
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Instead, teach them to yearn
for the vast and endless sea."
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In other words, I claim,
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if we really want to improve
our judgment as individuals
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and as societies,
00:10:45
what we need most
is not more instruction in logic
00:10:49
or rhetoric or probability or economics,
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even though those things
are quite valuable.
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But what we most need
to use those principles well
00:10:58
is scout mindset.
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We need to change the way we feel.
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We need to learn how to feel proud
instead of ashamed
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when we notice we might
have been wrong about something.
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We need to learn how to feel intrigued
instead of defensive
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when we encounter some information
that contradicts our beliefs.
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So the question I want
to leave you with is:
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What do you most yearn for?
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Do you yearn to defend your own beliefs?
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Or do you yearn to see the world
as clearly as you possibly can?
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Thank you.
00:11:31
(Applause)
