Metabolism | The Krebs Cycle

00:32:15
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rr7IRYLqleg

Résumé

TLDRVideo ena ke Ninja Nerd e bua ka potoloho ea Krebs, eo hape e tsejoang ka hore ke tricarboxylic acid cycle kapa citric acid cycle. Puisano e qala ka glycolysis, moo kholoeke e fetoloang ho ba pyruvate, e tsoelo-pele ho ba acetyl-CoA ka mor'a ho feta mitochondria, e be e kena potolohong ea Krebs. Ha e kena potsollong ena, acetyl-CoA e kopanngoa le oxaloacetate ho theha citrate ka thuso ea enzyme citrate synthase. Ena ke mohato oa pele oa potoloho. Video e shebana haholo ka sena mme e hlalosa mehato e meholo, ba lihlahisoa tse hlahisoang, le mehato eo li-enzyme li e nkang. E hlalosa hore na joang potollohono e laoloang ke maemo a ATP, NADH, le lintho tse ling tse kang citrate le succinyl-CoA. Ntetlang mehato ea lihormone, e bohlokoa haholo ka lebaka la tlhahiso ea FADH2 le NADH, tseo e leng likukuaneng tsa electron, tse tsamaisang potoro ea electron transport chain ho hlahisa ATP. Le hoja potolohong ea Krebs e sa hlahise haholo-holo ATP ka bo eona, e bohlokoa mokhatlong ona oa katoloso.

A retenir

  • 🔬 Krebs cycle is key in cellular respiration.
  • 🧬 Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to start the cycle.
  • 🚦 Regulation is crucial via ATP and NADH levels.
  • 🌀 Converts energy carriers NADH and FADH2.
  • ✨ Uses enzymes like citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase.
  • 🔄 Involves steps like decarboxylation and isomerization.
  • 📚 Mnemonic: Citrate Is Krebs' Starting Substrate For Making Oxaloacetate.
  • 💡 Energy produced in succinyl-CoA step via substrate phosphorylation.
  • 📉 High ATP levels hinder further cycle progression.
  • ⚠️ Enzyme mutations can lead to diseases such as tumors.

Chronologie

  • 00:00:00 - 00:05:00

    Ntle le ho etsoa ha glycolysis, moo glucose e sebelisoang ho etsa pyruvate e peli, le ho ikamahanya le maemo a etsahalang sebakeng sa mitochondria ho qala Krebs cycle ka ho theha acetyl CoA, ho kopanngoa ha oxaloacetate le acetyl CoA ho bōpa citrate ke mohato oa pele oa bohlokoa o sa khutlisoe.

  • 00:05:00 - 00:10:00

    Citrate synthase enzyme e hlophisitsoe ka thata ho laola mohato oa pele, 'me metsotso ena e laoloa ke maemo a ATP le NADH. Ho pepeseha kapa ho eketseha ha citrate ka boeona ho ka beha tšitiso ho enzyme ena. ADP e sebetsa e le stimulator ho susumetsa Krebs cycle ho tsoela pele.

  • 00:10:00 - 00:15:00

    Ho nakong e fetileng moo isocitrate e fetoloang ho alpha-ketoglutarate moo isocitrate dehydrogenase e leng ngata e laoloang ke ATP, ADP, le calcium. Calcium e susumelletsa Krebs cycle nakong eo mesifa e hloka energy e ngata bakeng sa kontraka.

  • 00:15:00 - 00:20:00

    Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase enzyme e bohlokoa haholo hobane e amana le tlhahiso ea NADH le letsoalo le tsitsitseng la Krebs cycle. Mutations ho enzyme ena li ka baka liphetoho tse kotsi ho metabolism le karolo ea DNA ka lebaka la phello ho histone demethylation.

  • 00:20:00 - 00:25:00

    Karolo e latelang e akaretsa phetoho ea succinyl-CoA ho fihlela succinate le ho tsamaisoa hoa GDP ho GTP le ho qetella ho etsa ATP ka substrate-level phosphorylation. Succinate dehydrogenase e sebetsa e le karolo ea electron transport chain mme e ka ‘na ea thibela pheochromocytoma ka liketsahalo tse fapaneng.

  • 00:25:00 - 00:32:15

    Qetellong, ts'ebetso e phethoa ka phetolo ea fumarate ho malate, le ka morao ho oxaloacetate, e tlatsang selikalikoe. Phatlalatso ena e fana ka kakaretso ea lihlahisoa tsa bohlokoa tsa Krebs cycle, ho kenyeletsa NADH, FADH2, 'me e bontša mokhoa oa ho etsa ATP.

Afficher plus

Carte mentale

Vidéo Q&R

  • What is the Krebs cycle also known as?

    The Krebs cycle is also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) or citric acid cycle.

  • Who developed the Krebs cycle?

    The Krebs cycle was developed by Hans Krebs.

  • What is the starting molecule for the Krebs cycle?

    The starting molecule is acetyl-CoA, which combines with oxaloacetate.

  • What is produced during the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA?

    During the conversion, NADH and CO2 are produced.

  • Which enzyme is involved in the formation of citrate from oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA?

    The enzyme involved is citrate synthase.

  • How is the enzyme citrate synthase regulated?

    Citrate synthase is regulated by the levels of ATP, NADH, citrate, and succinyl-CoA.

  • What is the mnemonic used to remember the sequence of intermediates in the Krebs cycle?

    The mnemonic is "Citrate Is Krebs' Starting Substrate For Making Oxaloacetate."

  • What does high levels of ATP indicate in relation to the Krebs cycle?

    High levels of ATP indicate sufficient energy, inhibiting further Krebs cycle activity.

  • How is energy produced at the succinyl-CoA to succinate step?

    Energy is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation, generating ATP from GTP.

  • What is the importance of FADH2 and NADH produced during the Krebs cycle?

    FADH2 and NADH carry electrons to the electron transport chain to produce ATP.

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Sous-titres
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Défilement automatique:
  • 00:00:00
    I ninja nerds in this video we're going
  • 00:00:09
    to talk about the krebs cycle so you can
  • 00:00:11
    also call it you know the tricarboxylic
  • 00:00:13
    acid cycle you can call it the citric
  • 00:00:16
    acid cycle so there is other names for
  • 00:00:18
    it was actually founded and developed by
  • 00:00:19
    the guy named hans krebs that's that's
  • 00:00:21
    where it came from okay so now when we
  • 00:00:25
    go through the Krebs cycle we've already
  • 00:00:26
    gone over in great detail we've already
  • 00:00:28
    gone over the glycolysis pathway and
  • 00:00:29
    then we have actually gone over all the
  • 00:00:30
    glut transporters we've gone over the
  • 00:00:33
    glycolysis pathway of converting what is
  • 00:00:34
    this molecule here this is glucose right
  • 00:00:37
    here we've converted glucose into
  • 00:00:40
    pyruvate and how many pyruvates have we
  • 00:00:44
    actually made technically we made two of
  • 00:00:46
    these right because we split the six
  • 00:00:48
    carbon fragment into two three carbon
  • 00:00:50
    fragments so we've actually made two
  • 00:00:52
    pyruvates and during that process you
  • 00:00:54
    guys already know that we generated two
  • 00:00:56
    NADH s and two net ATP and then you know
  • 00:01:00
    that we've already gone into detail
  • 00:01:01
    whenever there's oxygen present we can
  • 00:01:03
    take this pyruvate bring it into the
  • 00:01:05
    mitochondria and we can transition it
  • 00:01:07
    right we can get ready to transition to
  • 00:01:08
    the Krebs cycle and in that transition
  • 00:01:10
    step or that preparation step what do we
  • 00:01:13
    do we added a coenzyme a into this
  • 00:01:16
    reaction right and then what else did we
  • 00:01:18
    do we generated two NADH s and we
  • 00:01:20
    produced two co 2 s by decarboxylation
  • 00:01:22
    and I was done through this whole
  • 00:01:24
    pyruvate dehydrogenase complex with the
  • 00:01:27
    e1 e2 and e3 we already gone up we
  • 00:01:29
    already went over that in great detail
  • 00:01:30
    and all the mechanisms now we're going
  • 00:01:33
    into this next thing which is the Krebs
  • 00:01:35
    cycle so we formed this Utica way from
  • 00:01:37
    the transition step right this molecule
  • 00:01:40
    ER here's our acetyl co a now what we're
  • 00:01:45
    going to do is we're going to convert
  • 00:01:47
    this acetyl co way we're going to fuse
  • 00:01:49
    it with this four carbon fragment right
  • 00:01:52
    here this four carbon fragment is
  • 00:01:54
    actually referred to as oxaloacetate so
  • 00:01:58
    again this guy right here is called I'm
  • 00:01:59
    going to denote it I'm going to
  • 00:02:00
    abbreviate it Oh a a oxaloacetate is
  • 00:02:06
    going to combine with the acetyl co a
  • 00:02:08
    when these two substrates combine they
  • 00:02:11
    use together
  • 00:02:13
    and the presence of this enzyme we'll
  • 00:02:15
    talk about this enzyme in a second but
  • 00:02:17
    oaa is a four carbon structure combining
  • 00:02:20
    with a two carbon structure and again
  • 00:02:21
    what is this
  • 00:02:22
    this red structure coming off of the
  • 00:02:23
    acetic oi that's the coenzyme a when
  • 00:02:26
    this acetyl co a and win this Oh a a
  • 00:02:28
    combine with this enzyme they form a six
  • 00:02:31
    carbon molecule look one two three four
  • 00:02:34
    five six
  • 00:02:35
    what is this molecule called this is
  • 00:02:38
    called citrate it looks really
  • 00:02:41
    interesting yes citrate is Krebs
  • 00:02:49
    starting substrate for making
  • 00:03:03
    oxaloacetate what'd I just do I gave you
  • 00:03:07
    guys a little quick mnemonic to be able
  • 00:03:09
    to remember all of this so it's an
  • 00:03:10
    easier one to be able to do okay so how
  • 00:03:12
    do I remember I'd be again oxaloacetate
  • 00:03:14
    and acetyl co a come together in the
  • 00:03:16
    presence of this enzyme to form citrate
  • 00:03:17
    and I like to remember that citrate is
  • 00:03:20
    Krebs starting substrate substrate for
  • 00:03:22
    making oxaloacetate what is is for is is
  • 00:03:26
    for I so citrate
  • 00:03:30
    let's get all these intermediates all
  • 00:03:32
    the way just an easy way to be able to
  • 00:03:33
    remember them because that's what we
  • 00:03:35
    longed for all right sometimes things
  • 00:03:37
    just get it out of the way the
  • 00:03:38
    memorization ray Krebbs is for alpha
  • 00:03:41
    keto Glitter 8 I might refer to it as a
  • 00:03:48
    kg whenever you guys see it like that
  • 00:03:51
    starting is for succinylcholine all Co a
  • 00:03:59
    substrate is for sockson 8 this is
  • 00:04:02
    succinate
  • 00:04:06
    for is few married and then the last one
  • 00:04:14
    is making which is going to be malate
  • 00:04:17
    and the last one is oxaloacetate so
  • 00:04:21
    again it goes citrate is Krebs starting
  • 00:04:24
    substrate for making oxaloacetate just a
  • 00:04:27
    little quick mnemonic I thought that
  • 00:04:28
    would help out to just memorize you know
  • 00:04:31
    the basic intermediates now that we've
  • 00:04:32
    done that really there's nothing crazy
  • 00:04:34
    else that we have to know other than
  • 00:04:36
    just regulatory steps and what's
  • 00:04:37
    happening in between okay cool let's do
  • 00:04:40
    that now that we know the intermediates
  • 00:04:42
    let's focus on the enzymes and what's
  • 00:04:43
    produced in what's happening in each
  • 00:04:44
    step so acetic away in OAA
  • 00:04:47
    or oxaloacetate when these two are
  • 00:04:49
    fusing there's a special enzyme and what
  • 00:04:51
    does this enzyme doing it's forming
  • 00:04:53
    centrate it's synthesizing citrate so
  • 00:04:55
    what would that enzyme be called you
  • 00:04:58
    call it citrate synthase so there's a
  • 00:05:07
    citrate synthase enzyme this citrate
  • 00:05:10
    synthase what is he doing he's taking
  • 00:05:11
    the oxaloacetate in one part taking the
  • 00:05:14
    acetyl clay on the other part using them
  • 00:05:16
    together and making citrate
  • 00:05:17
    now the question is this enzyme is
  • 00:05:20
    extremely very highly regulated so it's
  • 00:05:22
    going to control this step so a CoA
  • 00:05:24
    going into citrate with oxaloacetate
  • 00:05:26
    this is not a reversible step this is a
  • 00:05:28
    one-way reaction so what does citrate
  • 00:05:31
    synthase have to be regulated by okay
  • 00:05:33
    it's going to go on and on what you guys
  • 00:05:35
    are going to see throughout a series of
  • 00:05:36
    these biochem videos think about this if
  • 00:05:40
    our body is having a lot of metabolism
  • 00:05:43
    so it's occurring a lot a lot of
  • 00:05:44
    metabolism are a lot of Krebs cycle a
  • 00:05:46
    lot of electron transport chain activity
  • 00:05:48
    I'm making a lot of ATP if I'm making a
  • 00:05:51
    lot of ATP do you think I'm going to
  • 00:05:53
    want to keep having the Krebs cycle
  • 00:05:55
    going on making more nadh and fadh2 s no
  • 00:05:58
    because I already have too much of it
  • 00:06:00
    this is going to inhibit it that's going
  • 00:06:02
    to do allosteric ly inhibit this enzyme
  • 00:06:03
    same thing in the Krebs cycle you'll see
  • 00:06:06
    that will generate a lot of what's
  • 00:06:07
    called NADH s that you see here NADH is
  • 00:06:11
    if there's too many of them it's also
  • 00:06:14
    basically telling this enzyme there's a
  • 00:06:16
    lot of energy supply within the cell we
  • 00:06:18
    don't need anymore
  • 00:06:19
    shut down don't do this anymore okay
  • 00:06:22
    then we have another one citrate himself
  • 00:06:25
    you know whenever there is actually too
  • 00:06:28
    much citrate citrate can actually come
  • 00:06:31
    back and inhibit this enzyme so citrate
  • 00:06:33
    himself can come back and inhibit this
  • 00:06:39
    enzyme so citrate can say okay there's
  • 00:06:41
    way too much of me because generally
  • 00:06:42
    what's going to happen when you mix it
  • 00:06:43
    rate you automatically get covered in to
  • 00:06:45
    isocitrate generally some of the citrate
  • 00:06:47
    can also get converted into the basic
  • 00:06:49
    units for fatty acids called Malin yoko
  • 00:06:51
    and we'll see that but generally it
  • 00:06:54
    should be progressing somewhere it's
  • 00:06:55
    showing to be building up when it's
  • 00:06:57
    building up it's letting the citrate
  • 00:06:58
    synthase know don't make any more of me
  • 00:07:01
    stop working and then there's another
  • 00:07:03
    one he's all the way down there though
  • 00:07:06
    it's called succinylcholine
  • 00:07:08
    so sucks and all co is also an
  • 00:07:12
    allosteric inhibitor he's just a little
  • 00:07:14
    bit more downstream and he's just
  • 00:07:15
    telling this enzyme hey before you even
  • 00:07:17
    think about making citrate there's
  • 00:07:19
    already too much of me so shut down and
  • 00:07:21
    stop making more citrate and making more
  • 00:07:23
    of me making more nadh is more ATP just
  • 00:07:26
    stop doing that and these are generally
  • 00:07:28
    the main allosteric regulators of this
  • 00:07:31
    citrate synthase now what would be a
  • 00:07:33
    stimulator we've already talked about
  • 00:07:35
    there's so many times but it's a good
  • 00:07:37
    good way to keep continuously reviewing
  • 00:07:39
    ATP gets broken down into what guys it
  • 00:07:42
    gets broken down into ADP and inorganic
  • 00:07:44
    phosphate if you're breaking down a lot
  • 00:07:47
    of ATP you're going to build up a lot of
  • 00:07:49
    ADP and this is going to signify that
  • 00:07:52
    you are actually not having a lot of ATP
  • 00:07:54
    within the cell if there's not a lot of
  • 00:07:56
    ATP in the cell that's not good because
  • 00:07:57
    ATP is needed for transport mechanisms
  • 00:08:00
    for metabolic pathways for DNA synthesis
  • 00:08:02
    so many different things ion channels so
  • 00:08:05
    ADP would be a very powerful allosteric
  • 00:08:09
    stimulator of this enzyme it would let
  • 00:08:12
    this enzyme know hey there's not a lot
  • 00:08:13
    of ATP you need to continue to keep
  • 00:08:15
    going through the Krebs cycle making
  • 00:08:17
    more nadh and fadh2 and make more ATP so
  • 00:08:21
    that would be that guy so generally this
  • 00:08:23
    is how we're going to allosteric ly
  • 00:08:25
    regulate this googly-eyed enzyme okay
  • 00:08:27
    because this googly-eyed enzyme is
  • 00:08:29
    involved in this step right here
  • 00:08:31
    converting me a seed
  • 00:08:32
    go into surgery very very highly
  • 00:08:34
    regulated step okay so we're done with
  • 00:08:38
    that one okay so now we got this Betty
  • 00:08:41
    White enzyme
  • 00:08:41
    okay there's Betty White Ensign with the
  • 00:08:43
    perm going on it's converting citrate
  • 00:08:45
    which is a six carbon molecule into what
  • 00:08:47
    okay one two three four five six it's
  • 00:08:52
    still six carbons so what's really
  • 00:08:54
    happening it's just an isomerization
  • 00:08:56
    reaction and isomerization reactions all
  • 00:08:58
    you're doing is you're just shuffling
  • 00:08:59
    around the hydrogens on the carbons but
  • 00:09:01
    there should still be the same number of
  • 00:09:02
    carbons and hydrogen's and oxygens in
  • 00:09:04
    this guy as there is carbon two
  • 00:09:06
    hydrogens and oxygens in this guy so
  • 00:09:07
    it's just shuffling things around not a
  • 00:09:10
    crazy crucial step but the enzyme
  • 00:09:15
    controlling this step as you guys can
  • 00:09:16
    see it's doing what it's able to move in
  • 00:09:20
    the reverse direction so whenever there
  • 00:09:22
    is too much isocitrate you can convert
  • 00:09:25
    it back into citrate it is possible and
  • 00:09:27
    it actually does happen and you'll see
  • 00:09:29
    this whenever we talk about this in
  • 00:09:30
    fatty acid synthesis but the enzyme is
  • 00:09:33
    controlling this is called a connotates
  • 00:09:35
    ACON ITA se okay a connotations I'm so
  • 00:09:39
    there's you know just because it's not
  • 00:09:41
    controlling it's not highly regulated is
  • 00:09:43
    reversible doesn't mean that this enzyme
  • 00:09:45
    is an important you know there's a rat
  • 00:09:47
    poison in rat poison there's a chemical
  • 00:09:52
    that's present called floral acetate and
  • 00:09:58
    what happens with this floral acetate is
  • 00:10:02
    kind of acting like a seed okole you
  • 00:10:05
    know acetate is just basically another
  • 00:10:06
    fancy word for saying it's a two carbon
  • 00:10:08
    structure I don't have to just a
  • 00:10:10
    fluorine attached to it so it's going to
  • 00:10:11
    get actually converted it can act like
  • 00:10:13
    floral acetate so you know how you're
  • 00:10:14
    going to have a fetal Co a here you're
  • 00:10:16
    going to have this floral acetyl co a
  • 00:10:18
    which gets converted into fluoro citrate
  • 00:10:20
    and that flora citrate binds on to the
  • 00:10:22
    Econo taste enzyme and what is it
  • 00:10:24
    eventually going to do it's going to
  • 00:10:26
    inhibit this enzyme in this enzyme once
  • 00:10:28
    it's inhibited it can't convert the
  • 00:10:30
    Train isocitrate so you can't you won't
  • 00:10:31
    be able to generate eventually NADH is
  • 00:10:33
    fadh2s and ATP and that is a very very
  • 00:10:36
    bad thing so floral acetate can actually
  • 00:10:39
    cause inhibition of this accommodation
  • 00:10:41
    time and again it's within rat poison so
  • 00:10:42
    if you you know somehow terribly take on
  • 00:10:45
    too much rat poison for what
  • 00:10:46
    a reason it can inhibit this enzyme
  • 00:10:49
    alright cool
  • 00:10:50
    nobody come into this next one so we're
  • 00:10:53
    going to convert isocitrate into alpha Q
  • 00:10:55
    to glue rating alright cool how many
  • 00:10:57
    carbons is this guys six carbons how
  • 00:10:58
    many is this guy one two three four five
  • 00:11:01
    okay cool
  • 00:11:02
    five carbons that means I lost a carbon
  • 00:11:05
    somewhere whenever you guys hear that
  • 00:11:07
    whenever you see a carbon missing
  • 00:11:09
    automatically assume that you lost that
  • 00:11:12
    carbon in the form of co2 what does that
  • 00:11:15
    call I know we talked about it but what
  • 00:11:18
    does it call whenever you lose a carbon
  • 00:11:20
    in the form of co2 what do they call
  • 00:11:21
    that they call it D carboxylation okay
  • 00:11:27
    so decarboxylation is the the actual
  • 00:11:30
    reaction in which you're removing a
  • 00:11:32
    carbon in the form of co2 primarily a
  • 00:11:35
    carboxyl and carbon when we're losing
  • 00:11:37
    them okay now in this reaction we have a
  • 00:11:41
    very very important enzyme this enzyme
  • 00:11:44
    is called ISO citrate dehydrogenase
  • 00:11:55
    right away Bell should start ringing in
  • 00:11:58
    your head once you hear dehydrogenase
  • 00:12:01
    automatically know that you are going to
  • 00:12:04
    be converting nad positives into NADH s
  • 00:12:07
    okay automatically once you guys see
  • 00:12:10
    that automatically think oh I'm going to
  • 00:12:12
    make any of the H's in this step so what
  • 00:12:14
    happens in this reaction in a D+ is
  • 00:12:18
    reacting in this step to generate in a d
  • 00:12:22
    h okay that's what's happening in this
  • 00:12:25
    step I'm taking any deposit and
  • 00:12:27
    converting it into NADH cool now you see
  • 00:12:32
    how this step is one direction is not
  • 00:12:35
    bi-directional so this is not a
  • 00:12:37
    reversible enzyme it can only be moving
  • 00:12:39
    in one direction usually any enzyme that
  • 00:12:41
    forms co2 is generally usually
  • 00:12:43
    irreversible isocitrate dehydrogenase
  • 00:12:46
    has three pockets look it's got this
  • 00:12:48
    pocket this pocket this pocket what is
  • 00:12:50
    going to happen here okay again realize
  • 00:12:54
    that whenever we're actually having high
  • 00:12:57
    amounts of
  • 00:12:58
    a teepee you guys can all automatically
  • 00:13:01
    think that whenever there's high amounts
  • 00:13:03
    of ATP this little sneaky dog has three
  • 00:13:07
    binding sites okay
  • 00:13:09
    three binding sites what's going to
  • 00:13:11
    happen to this little Snoopy dog or the
  • 00:13:12
    isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme if
  • 00:13:14
    there's too much ATP ATP will inhibit
  • 00:13:19
    this enzyme and that should already make
  • 00:13:20
    sense because there's too much energy
  • 00:13:22
    production we want to slow it down
  • 00:13:23
    whereas think about the opposite effect
  • 00:13:26
    if I'm breaking down a lot of ADP ATP
  • 00:13:28
    and generating a lot of ADP that should
  • 00:13:31
    stimulate this enzyme in that it does my
  • 00:13:34
    friends okay and for the last one this
  • 00:13:38
    one's kind of gonna be like what the
  • 00:13:39
    heck where'd that come from calcium is
  • 00:13:41
    another strong stimulator of this enzyme
  • 00:13:45
    and this should actually make sense
  • 00:13:46
    think about this in the muscles in
  • 00:13:48
    muscles calcium is acting as a nice
  • 00:13:51
    important type of signaling molecule to
  • 00:13:54
    activate the the cross bridge formation
  • 00:13:57
    within the skeletal muscles even cardiac
  • 00:13:59
    muscle right he's important for that
  • 00:14:00
    because we need calcium in order for our
  • 00:14:01
    muscles to contract but another thing
  • 00:14:04
    that we need for our muscles to contract
  • 00:14:05
    is ATP
  • 00:14:06
    if this enzyme is stimulated he's going
  • 00:14:10
    to help to generate any DHS which will
  • 00:14:12
    take those high drives to the electron
  • 00:14:14
    transport chain and generate ATP so
  • 00:14:16
    calcium is helping to stimulate this
  • 00:14:18
    enzyme so we can make more ATP so we can
  • 00:14:20
    have more contractions because he knows
  • 00:14:22
    ATP is needed to detach the myosin from
  • 00:14:25
    the actin for the cross bridge formation
  • 00:14:26
    right so calcium is kind of letting this
  • 00:14:28
    enzyme know make more ATP ADP we're not
  • 00:14:31
    we don't have enough ATP in a cell we
  • 00:14:33
    need to make more ATP is an inhibitor
  • 00:14:35
    because it's saying we have too much
  • 00:14:36
    stop making more simple nothing crazy
  • 00:14:39
    about that okay now we're going to move
  • 00:14:42
    on to this next enzyme this next enzyme
  • 00:14:45
    is extremely important we really need to
  • 00:14:47
    remember this in but this enzyme right
  • 00:14:50
    here look at this she's got you know
  • 00:14:51
    locks here this is called alpha I'm
  • 00:14:56
    going to do that key to glitter 8kg D
  • 00:15:01
    hydrogenation v this is an extremely
  • 00:15:05
    extremely crucial in bond okay count how
  • 00:15:09
    many carbons we have again 1 2 3 4 5 4
  • 00:15:11
    alpha cute blue ray
  • 00:15:12
    for suction okay how many do I have one
  • 00:15:16
    two three four okay that means I must
  • 00:15:20
    have lost the carbon oh yeah cool so
  • 00:15:22
    there must have been decarboxylation I
  • 00:15:23
    must have lost a carbon in the form of
  • 00:15:25
    co2 so there must have been another
  • 00:15:27
    decarboxylation reaction
  • 00:15:28
    oh wait Zach so whenever I have a
  • 00:15:31
    dehydrogenate e+ to NADH okay so that's
  • 00:15:35
    not bad this reaction is kaput it's done
  • 00:15:42
    that's it it's not that bad because all
  • 00:15:44
    you got to remember is okay five to four
  • 00:15:46
    loss of co2 decarboxylation any deposit
  • 00:15:49
    to NADH because there's a dehydrogenase
  • 00:15:50
    enzyme that's it now we have to remember
  • 00:15:54
    look this she's got three pockets here
  • 00:15:56
    and her dreads okay what's going to
  • 00:15:58
    happen same thing now think about this
  • 00:16:02
    one it's going to be a little tricky
  • 00:16:05
    nothing crazy
  • 00:16:06
    you see succinylcholine he's just
  • 00:16:09
    sitting here he's going to tell this
  • 00:16:11
    enzyme if there's too much of him and if
  • 00:16:13
    this enzyme needs to stop so look look
  • 00:16:15
    like sucks in Ocoee I can come over here
  • 00:16:16
    and do it can come and bind onto this
  • 00:16:19
    enzyme and it will inhibit this enzyme
  • 00:16:21
    and tell this enzyme don't keep
  • 00:16:23
    converting allocute obliterate to suck
  • 00:16:25
    sonic away we don't need to do that
  • 00:16:26
    anymore there's either too much ATP
  • 00:16:28
    there's too much any DHS there's too
  • 00:16:30
    much energy produced in the cell stop
  • 00:16:32
    okay now the next ones are the next ones
  • 00:16:37
    a little weird but it's not crazy
  • 00:16:38
    see these NADH es if you start
  • 00:16:42
    generating too much NADH s that can also
  • 00:16:44
    tell this enzyme to shut down so this
  • 00:16:46
    NADH can actually come over here and
  • 00:16:48
    what can they do look here's our NADH if
  • 00:16:51
    there's too much NADH s what will it do
  • 00:16:53
    to this enzyme it will inhibit this
  • 00:16:55
    enzyme tell the same time don't keep
  • 00:16:57
    converting me alpha-keto great into
  • 00:16:59
    socks antiquate because there's already
  • 00:17:00
    too much NADH s we need to stop making
  • 00:17:03
    as much and that will inhibit this
  • 00:17:05
    enzyme and the last thing is super
  • 00:17:08
    simple because we already talked about
  • 00:17:09
    him calcium right calcium is also going
  • 00:17:13
    to work in this step - so you're going
  • 00:17:15
    to have nadh who is going to be
  • 00:17:17
    inhibiting this enzyme suck cynical a
  • 00:17:19
    which is going to be inhibiting this
  • 00:17:21
    enzyme and then what else is going to be
  • 00:17:23
    working in this stuff calcium
  • 00:17:25
    calcium's going to be doing what in this
  • 00:17:26
    step calcium is going to be stimulating
  • 00:17:34
    this enzyme here okay so now that should
  • 00:17:38
    make sense now right because we
  • 00:17:39
    generated co2 by decarboxylation we
  • 00:17:42
    generated some NADH s out of this
  • 00:17:44
    reaction because we have the alpha Q
  • 00:17:46
    tubular hydrogenase but then we need to
  • 00:17:48
    be able to correct you late this enzyme
  • 00:17:50
    to control how much activity is going on
  • 00:17:52
    if there's too much sucks in Ocoee from
  • 00:17:54
    too much krebs cycle activity it's going
  • 00:17:55
    to inhibit this enzyme to stop this
  • 00:17:57
    Candace Krebs cycle from continuing to
  • 00:17:59
    occur if there's too much NADH s that
  • 00:18:01
    are being generated it'll also inhibit
  • 00:18:03
    this enzyme tell it not to continue to
  • 00:18:04
    give her because we already have too
  • 00:18:05
    much any DHS and too much ATP but then
  • 00:18:08
    again calcium think of the muscles
  • 00:18:09
    calcium is going to try to do what helps
  • 00:18:11
    to be able to form that you know to
  • 00:18:12
    allow for the muscle contraction
  • 00:18:14
    but we need ATP in order for the muscles
  • 00:18:17
    to contract so without the ATP the
  • 00:18:18
    muscles won't be able to contract so
  • 00:18:20
    calcium is helping to activate this
  • 00:18:22
    enzyme so we can speed up the ATP
  • 00:18:24
    production all right cool now why do I
  • 00:18:26
    want to mention this enzyme and say it's
  • 00:18:27
    extremely important okay in your body
  • 00:18:31
    alpha key to glue the rate is an
  • 00:18:35
    interval component of an enzyme called
  • 00:18:37
    histone demethylase and this histone
  • 00:18:45
    demethylase basically what histone
  • 00:18:46
    demethylases do let's say here's the DNA
  • 00:18:48
    because I have a sequence of DNA or
  • 00:18:50
    something like that right and you know
  • 00:18:52
    DNA is wrapped around histone proteins
  • 00:18:54
    and histone proteins are basically very
  • 00:18:57
    important for being able to control the
  • 00:18:59
    organization of these DNA the gene
  • 00:19:04
    expression and stuff like that so these
  • 00:19:07
    histone proteins are actually going to
  • 00:19:08
    be having the DNA wrapped around them
  • 00:19:10
    what histone demethylases do is you
  • 00:19:12
    might have methyl groups on these guys
  • 00:19:14
    here which are basically controlling you
  • 00:19:17
    know gene modification epigenetics and
  • 00:19:19
    stuff like that the system the
  • 00:19:20
    matheletes will come over and remove
  • 00:19:22
    those methyl groups I also keep the
  • 00:19:24
    glute array is a cofactor
  • 00:19:27
    it's a cofactor that this histone
  • 00:19:29
    demethylase right
  • 00:19:31
    in our body we have that enzyme right so
  • 00:19:34
    what was making the alpha ketoglutarate
  • 00:19:35
    if you guys remember we were taking what
  • 00:19:38
    we were having this alpha Q to glue to
  • 00:19:40
    rate was going to be an important
  • 00:19:42
    component of this step right here right
  • 00:19:43
    helping to synthesize you know being a
  • 00:19:45
    component to histone demethylase if this
  • 00:19:48
    alpha keto glued array right so remember
  • 00:19:49
    we had the isocitrate isocitrate was
  • 00:19:53
    actually being converted what isocitrate
  • 00:19:55
    was being converted into alpha
  • 00:19:58
    ketoglutarate right and that was done by
  • 00:20:00
    the isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme but
  • 00:20:04
    then alpha ketoglutarate is getting
  • 00:20:05
    converted into what it's getting
  • 00:20:07
    converted into Sox in ocala through what
  • 00:20:11
    alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase in a
  • 00:20:15
    condition in which there is a mutant
  • 00:20:17
    form of that alpha key to glue rate
  • 00:20:19
    dehydrogenase specifically the one which
  • 00:20:22
    is having a NADPH is involved with the
  • 00:20:24
    not na DS NADPH is in a condition in
  • 00:20:29
    which there is some type of mutation in
  • 00:20:31
    this enzyme with the NADPH is it can
  • 00:20:33
    actually convert instead of converting
  • 00:20:35
    it at the succinylcholine a lot of this
  • 00:20:38
    alpha Q to Glitter rate you can get
  • 00:20:39
    another molecule here and it's called
  • 00:20:41
    two hydroxy Glu rate
  • 00:20:45
    why am I tell you this because two
  • 00:20:47
    hydroxy gluta rate will come in and do
  • 00:20:49
    what it'll bind and prevent this alpha
  • 00:20:53
    keto GU turret from being able to bind
  • 00:20:55
    if alpha ketoglutarate can't bind onto
  • 00:20:57
    the histone demethylases can you control
  • 00:20:59
    the gene expression no if gene
  • 00:21:01
    expression isn't controlled it can lead
  • 00:21:03
    to tumors it can lead to uncontrolled
  • 00:21:06
    cell growth primarily super-dangerous
  • 00:21:08
    one because a priori of it called
  • 00:21:11
    bleona's gliomas are basically tumors
  • 00:21:15
    that are occurring within the glial
  • 00:21:16
    cells in the brain one of the really
  • 00:21:18
    really dangerous ones is the
  • 00:21:18
    astrocytomas or the glioblastoma
  • 00:21:20
    multiforme so gbm's which are very very
  • 00:21:23
    dangerous can you really have an 80%
  • 00:21:25
    metastatic rate and they're usually
  • 00:21:26
    malignant can cause you know unfortunate
  • 00:21:29
    death but again understanding how
  • 00:21:31
    something so small that you would think
  • 00:21:32
    you know there's just metabolism it can
  • 00:21:34
    have such an amazing effect on your body
  • 00:21:36
    so again any type of mutation is alpha
  • 00:21:38
    ketoglutarate dehydrogenase particularly
  • 00:21:40
    with the NADPH one and instead of na
  • 00:21:42
    dh1 can lead to the formation of a
  • 00:21:45
    byproduct called two hydroxy butyrate
  • 00:21:47
    which can inhibit the alpha
  • 00:21:49
    ketoglutarate from binding to the
  • 00:21:50
    histone demethylase inhibiting this
  • 00:21:52
    enzyme inhibiting gene expression and
  • 00:21:54
    leading to uncontrolled cell growth and
  • 00:21:56
    tumor formation okay now that got that
  • 00:22:00
    out of the way let's move into the next
  • 00:22:01
    one now we got to take this sucks in
  • 00:22:02
    Ocoee and i'm going to convert it into
  • 00:22:04
    succinate okay what happened you're okay
  • 00:22:08
    somewhere in this reaction oh look at
  • 00:22:10
    that alpha keto glue to rate going to
  • 00:22:13
    suck Seneca wait what did we miss
  • 00:22:15
    over here we had that koay I should have
  • 00:22:19
    a coating on this guy what does that
  • 00:22:21
    mean that means I added a co a onto this
  • 00:22:24
    step let's add that in there so there
  • 00:22:26
    must have been a coenzyme a being added
  • 00:22:29
    into this stuff you know there's alpha
  • 00:22:30
    ketoglutarate dehydrogenase if you guys
  • 00:22:32
    remember the pyruvate dehydrogenase
  • 00:22:34
    complex this enzyme functions in the
  • 00:22:36
    exact same mechanism so if you guys
  • 00:22:38
    remember that enzyme you remember how
  • 00:22:40
    this enzyme functions anyway we add the
  • 00:22:44
    co am then look what happens we we get
  • 00:22:46
    rid of the co a so then we lose the
  • 00:22:48
    co-ed in this step but it's all for good
  • 00:22:50
    reason it's sometimes we might not like
  • 00:22:52
    why it does this well what's happening
  • 00:22:55
    here something really funky is happening
  • 00:22:58
    when we release the co a it generates a
  • 00:23:01
    little bit of energy a little bit of
  • 00:23:02
    potential energy another body uses to
  • 00:23:04
    take GDP and an inorganic phosphate and
  • 00:23:10
    use that to form gtp
  • 00:23:14
    okay it's cool but then you know who
  • 00:23:16
    comes in ADP ATP is like oh man I'm
  • 00:23:20
    going to Pitt pocket this guy so hard so
  • 00:23:23
    what did you do adb comes over here and
  • 00:23:26
    steals the faucet from the GTP adp when
  • 00:23:29
    he gains the phosphate what if he turned
  • 00:23:31
    into he gains another phosphate so he
  • 00:23:33
    turns into ATP okay that's cool well
  • 00:23:36
    what happens to the gtp the gtp
  • 00:23:39
    unfortunately goes back to GDP okay so
  • 00:23:44
    it's a cool way of our body being able
  • 00:23:45
    to generate ATP through what's called
  • 00:23:47
    substrate level phosphorylation so again
  • 00:23:49
    what is that called it's called
  • 00:23:51
    substrate
  • 00:23:55
    phosphorylation which is completely
  • 00:23:57
    different as compared to oxidative
  • 00:24:00
    phosphorylation so substrate
  • 00:24:02
    phosphorylation doesn't generate as much
  • 00:24:03
    ATP as compared to oxidative
  • 00:24:05
    phosphorylation okay so that's happening
  • 00:24:08
    in this step so we're developing ATP and
  • 00:24:10
    that's coming because of releasing out
  • 00:24:12
    the coenzyme a which creates a little
  • 00:24:13
    bit of energy to take GDP and inorganic
  • 00:24:15
    phosphate fuse them together to make GTP
  • 00:24:18
    but then adp comes over here pit pockets
  • 00:24:20
    that phosphate from the GTP it makes ATP
  • 00:24:23
    which converts the GTP back into gdp
  • 00:24:26
    what enzyme is helping in this step okay
  • 00:24:31
    this enzyme here converting sucks in
  • 00:24:34
    Ocoee into sockson eight it's got pretty
  • 00:24:36
    cool enzyme this is cold
  • 00:24:40
    specifically sucks in all co a synthesis
  • 00:24:50
    okay so you have the sucks tentacle a
  • 00:24:52
    sent to taste enzyme and what this
  • 00:24:53
    enzyme is doing is it's being involved
  • 00:24:56
    in this step to stimulate the conversion
  • 00:24:59
    of succinylcholine to succinate now when
  • 00:25:03
    we get that succinate nothing crazy
  • 00:25:06
    happens in this next step but let's see
  • 00:25:08
    what's happening here nonetheless okay
  • 00:25:10
    look we're taking sockson eight we're
  • 00:25:12
    converting it into two married when we
  • 00:25:14
    take Sox amine convert it into a few
  • 00:25:15
    marry we have another enzyme look at
  • 00:25:17
    this look at this freak
  • 00:25:18
    okay this enzyme right here is special
  • 00:25:21
    you don't know why look where he's
  • 00:25:23
    actually anchored he's anchored on the
  • 00:25:25
    mitochondrial membrane specifically the
  • 00:25:27
    inner mitochondrial membrane the cristae
  • 00:25:29
    is is actually called complex 2 enzyme
  • 00:25:33
    complex that's a part of the electron
  • 00:25:34
    transport chain but we like to call it
  • 00:25:36
    something else
  • 00:25:36
    we call it succinate dehydrogenase boom
  • 00:25:44
    light bulb what does that mean
  • 00:25:46
    automatically if you think F ad in this
  • 00:25:50
    case that's a th - but you guys are
  • 00:25:53
    probably like oh do what you told me it
  • 00:25:55
    was nad
  • 00:25:56
    any type of coenzyme usually f ad or nad
  • 00:25:59
    is usually involved whenever you hear
  • 00:26:01
    dehydrogenase okay now because i'm
  • 00:26:05
    forming fadh2 this is going to be how
  • 00:26:07
    energy production but you know what else
  • 00:26:08
    is also helpful for this you know in
  • 00:26:10
    certain condition that's called
  • 00:26:11
    pheochromocytoma so called
  • 00:26:18
    pheochromocytoma there's some type of
  • 00:26:22
    mutation in this end vine an alteration
  • 00:26:24
    or mutation this enzyme can cause a
  • 00:26:26
    situation where you form a neuroblastoma
  • 00:26:29
    it's usually benign meaning it's not
  • 00:26:31
    metastatic it doesn't spread
  • 00:26:32
    but the spiel chromis i total is usually
  • 00:26:35
    a tumor that develops within the adrenal
  • 00:26:36
    medulla and it causes an excessive
  • 00:26:39
    amounts of epinephrine and
  • 00:26:41
    norepinephrine to be produced which
  • 00:26:42
    causes an extreme hypertensive crisis so
  • 00:26:45
    a very very dangerous condition but just
  • 00:26:47
    seeing any type of mutation this enzyme
  • 00:26:48
    can lead to this condition
  • 00:26:51
    pheochromocytoma all right cool
  • 00:26:54
    so again remember that this is an enzyme
  • 00:26:55
    complex - it's a part of the electron
  • 00:26:57
    transport chain and it's converting fadd
  • 00:26:59
    fadh2 but it's also reversible so this
  • 00:27:01
    reaction can be reversible alright cool
  • 00:27:05
    so that's that step now we're going to
  • 00:27:07
    take the fumarate and we're going to
  • 00:27:09
    convert that into the Mallee
  • 00:27:10
    okay this enzyme is really really simple
  • 00:27:12
    nothing crazy about this enzyme this
  • 00:27:15
    enzyme is called humerus and look we got
  • 00:27:20
    Humpty Dumpty he's sitting on this
  • 00:27:22
    reaction Humpty Dumpty is actually going
  • 00:27:25
    to do what he's going to throw some
  • 00:27:27
    water into this reaction he's like a let
  • 00:27:29
    me help out in this reaction to the best
  • 00:27:31
    of my abilities and he throws water into
  • 00:27:33
    this reaction but again remember that
  • 00:27:35
    this reaction is reversible so what does
  • 00:27:37
    he do in this reaction
  • 00:27:38
    Humpty Dumpty takes and throws water
  • 00:27:40
    into this reaction to convert few Mary
  • 00:27:42
    into malee name--but might be like okay
  • 00:27:45
    simple must not be an important of an
  • 00:27:48
    enzyme
  • 00:27:48
    he is very important you know in the
  • 00:27:49
    condition which there's a deficiency in
  • 00:27:51
    this enzyme it can lead to the formation
  • 00:27:54
    of what's called li Alma's or leiomyomas
  • 00:27:57
    2 and the Oma's are usually going to be
  • 00:28:00
    tumors that develop within smooth muscle
  • 00:28:03
    tissue usually they're benign
  • 00:28:05
    perfect example this one is they also
  • 00:28:07
    call them fibroids but it's some type of
  • 00:28:09
    you turrents very very common in the
  • 00:28:11
    uterine smooth muscle and even in the
  • 00:28:14
    kidneys okay so this can happen in the
  • 00:28:17
    uterine smooth muscle and it can happen
  • 00:28:19
    in
  • 00:28:19
    kidneys but usually there's some type of
  • 00:28:22
    glioma and again just a deficiency in
  • 00:28:24
    this enzyme can cause that significant
  • 00:28:26
    change unbelievable
  • 00:28:28
    okay so now we got malate malate has
  • 00:28:32
    this Haiti's looking enzyme look at this
  • 00:28:34
    look at this frame hi this guy right
  • 00:28:35
    here is the cool enzyme I like him he's
  • 00:28:38
    called malate dehydrogenase be you guys
  • 00:28:44
    should automatically think again
  • 00:28:45
    NAD+ to NADH so what's happening I'm
  • 00:28:49
    taking NAD+ and I'm converting it into
  • 00:28:51
    and ADH why because there is a
  • 00:28:55
    dehydrogenase enzyme present when
  • 00:28:58
    there's a dehydrogenase enzyme present
  • 00:28:59
    its converting NAD+ to NADH in this step
  • 00:29:02
    this enzyme is also reversible so this
  • 00:29:04
    reverse reaction can occur Oh a to malli
  • 00:29:06
    and we'll see that and throughout more
  • 00:29:08
    videos where we cover a little bit on
  • 00:29:10
    gluconeogenesis and even electron
  • 00:29:12
    transport chain okay now that we've done
  • 00:29:15
    that we've covered all of these
  • 00:29:17
    different enzymes that are involved in
  • 00:29:18
    this in these steps here now
  • 00:29:21
    one other thing I want to do I want to
  • 00:29:23
    tell you guys is is that when I'm taking
  • 00:29:25
    this acetyl co a what am i doing right
  • 00:29:27
    I'm taking this acetyl clay I'm
  • 00:29:28
    combining with the oxalic acid and
  • 00:29:30
    having it react with citrate synthase to
  • 00:29:32
    form citrate citrate is reacting with a
  • 00:29:34
    con taste to make isocitrate isocitrate
  • 00:29:37
    is going to be acted on by isocitrate
  • 00:29:38
    dehydrogenase to make alpha
  • 00:29:40
    ketoglutarate alpha ketoglutarate gets
  • 00:29:42
    converted to sucks in Ocoee when acted
  • 00:29:43
    on by alpha key to obliterate
  • 00:29:45
    dehydrogenase the suck suck suck Seneca
  • 00:29:48
    wave sent to taste is going to be taking
  • 00:29:49
    succinylcholine and converting it into
  • 00:29:51
    succinate to generate a little bit ATP
  • 00:29:53
    in that step and then succinate is
  • 00:29:55
    converting it into a few merry and then
  • 00:29:57
    if you married it's being converted into
  • 00:29:59
    Malley and malate back to LA how many
  • 00:30:01
    ask eunuch away should I really be
  • 00:30:02
    having going through this cycle this is
  • 00:30:04
    crucial I have two pyruvates well two
  • 00:30:07
    pyruvates get converted into two acetyl
  • 00:30:10
    coins I need to make two turns if I make
  • 00:30:13
    two turns don't I really develop two
  • 00:30:16
    fadh2s
  • 00:30:17
    don't I really develop to nad ages and
  • 00:30:21
    don't I develop another two NADH is
  • 00:30:24
    right here and another two NADH is right
  • 00:30:28
    here and technically two ATP and two
  • 00:30:32
    Koei's
  • 00:30:33
    right and to Koei's being added okay so
  • 00:30:37
    how many co2 is that we generate out of
  • 00:30:39
    this we generated chewing this step and
  • 00:30:42
    we generated two in this step so two
  • 00:30:43
    plus two is four so we got four co2 is
  • 00:30:46
    out of this okay
  • 00:30:49
    what about any DHS I generated 6 nadh
  • 00:30:53
    --is how I generate sixteen eighty ages
  • 00:30:56
    let's look we generated to any DHS in
  • 00:31:01
    this step going from malli to
  • 00:31:02
    oxaloacetate right so that's two I
  • 00:31:04
    generated two NADH is in this step going
  • 00:31:08
    from isocitrate to alpha ketoglutarate
  • 00:31:09
    that's four and i generated two more
  • 00:31:12
    nadh is going from alpha q to glue two
  • 00:31:14
    right to suck Sunoco a that's six then
  • 00:31:17
    what was the last thing that we
  • 00:31:18
    generated to fadh2 s okay cool so I got
  • 00:31:22
    two fadh2s last thing how many ATP did I
  • 00:31:29
    generate two ATP and by what type of
  • 00:31:32
    phosphorylation substrate
  • 00:31:34
    phosphorylation so again I'm generating
  • 00:31:35
    by substrate phosphorylation and where
  • 00:31:39
    is that happening that's happening when
  • 00:31:40
    I'm going from succinylcholine eight
  • 00:31:43
    remember I'm taking the gdp to GTP and
  • 00:31:45
    having the adp pick off that phosphate
  • 00:31:47
    to form ATP two of them by substrate
  • 00:31:50
    level phosphorylation so out of this
  • 00:31:52
    this is going to be the main products
  • 00:31:53
    that you'll get out of this and these
  • 00:31:55
    nadh and fadh2 s will go and take these
  • 00:31:58
    hydride ions to the electron transport
  • 00:32:00
    chain will they'll be used to make ATP
  • 00:32:02
    by oxidative phosphorylation ideas here
  • 00:32:05
    so we went over a lot of information in
  • 00:32:06
    this video I hope it all made sense I
  • 00:32:08
    hope you guys did enjoy it if you did
  • 00:32:09
    please hit the like button subscribe put
  • 00:32:11
    a comment down in the comment section I
  • 00:32:13
    ninja nerds until next time
Tags
  • Krebs cycle
  • glycolysis
  • acetyl-CoA
  • citrate
  • enzymes
  • regulation
  • energy production
  • NADH
  • FADH2