Pós-modernidade, justiça e filosofia | Amartya Sen, Simon Blackburn e Fredric Jameson

00:47:01
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huyUqPvT7Qs

الملخص

TLDR该视频通过探讨安全与自由的辩证关系引入了后现代主义的概念，分析了建筑、社会生活和经济结构的变化。强调了后现代给当代社会带来的影响，特别是在全球化背景下，经济体系的转型。此外，演讲者审视了幸福的多样性，并倡导在追求社会正义中进行开放的讨论与交流，以促进人类生活的提升。

الوجبات الجاهزة

  • 🔐 安全与自由是生活中不可或缺的价值观
  • 🏛️ 后现代建筑风格更具友好与装饰性
  • 💬 正义的探讨需要开放的公共讨论
  • 🌍 全球化影响了后现代的社会结构
  • 📈 后现代经济体制涉及信息技术的崛起
  • 💡 幸福的定义包含多种元素
  • 🛠️ 互动对于社会进步至关重要
  • 📖 理解历史对现有观念的影响
  • 🤝 不同文化之间的理念交流很重要
  • 🔍 反思思想对个人和社会的塑造作用

الجدول الزمني

  • 00:00:00 - 00:05:00

    在生活中，安全和自由是追求幸福的重要价值，但这两者之间总会存在矛盾与妥协。

  • 00:05:00 - 00:10:00

    建筑学的变革不仅是一种风格的变化，而是反映出社会生活及观念的根本转变，激发了对后现代主义的重新思考。

  • 00:10:00 - 00:15:00

    后现代主义体现了一种社会的多元化与复杂性，旧的现代主义体系随着历史的演变而逐渐消失，取而代之的是新兴的空间意识和信息技术。

  • 00:15:00 - 00:20:00

    后现代资本主义的出现强调了信息时代的来临，并与全球化紧密相连，形成了现代与后现代之间显著的历史断裂。

  • 00:20:00 - 00:25:00

    在社会结构中，空间优于时间的转变使得人们的存在感受到极大的变化，未来和过去的感知逐渐减弱，集中在当下的瞬间。

  • 00:25:00 - 00:30:00

    正义的理解不应仅仅依赖于理想的安排，而应聚焦于如何在社会中不断提升正义，解决存在的不公和不平等。

  • 00:30:00 - 00:35:00

    不同文化与国家背景下，对正义认知的差异使得社会需要通过公共讨论和互动来达成共识和解决争端。

  • 00:35:00 - 00:40:00

    在全球化背景下，合作与共责尤为重要，各国需透过相互讨论达成公平的协议以应对气候变化等重大问题。

  • 00:40:00 - 00:47:01

    关注思想的力量与重要性是哲学的核心，哲学不仅帮助我们反思我们的生活方式，也让我们理解与他人之间的多样性和复杂性。

اعرض المزيد

الخريطة الذهنية

فيديو أسئلة وأجوبة

  • 视频讨论了哪两个基本价值？

    安全与自由是生活中的两个基本价值。

  • 后现代主义是如何影响建筑的？

    后现代主义引发了建筑风格的转变，强调更具友好性和装饰性的设计。

  • 视频中提到的幸福有什么重要性？

    幸福被认为在个人生活和社会评估中是一个重要因素。

  • 后现代经济体制是如何描述的？

    后现代经济体制与信息技术相关，标志着资本主义的新阶段。

  • 视频中强调了哪种讨论形式来提升正义？

    强调了公共讨论和互动审查的重要性。

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الترجمات
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التمرير التلقائي:
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    for for
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    [Music]
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    [Music]
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    it's
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    important for
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    and I came to the
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    conclusion that there are
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    two essential
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    values which are absolutely
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    indispensable for a satisfactory
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    satisfying
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    rewarding relatively happy life one is
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    security the other is freedom we will
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    never find the perfect solution of the
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    Dilemma
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    between security and freedom there
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    always will be too much of one and too
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    love the other right
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    [Music]
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    well I hope so I don't know it depends
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    on
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    of time by
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    space you bring to it the categories of
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    thought the categories of
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    I began to be interested in the idea of
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    postmodernism uh I suppose in the late
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    70s and early 80s uh but I came to it
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    really through
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    architecture uh and through the sense I
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    had begun to work with some architects
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    in the early 80s um and I had the sense
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    first of all that architecture itself
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    was undergoing a profound
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    transformation uh and that uh all the
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    interesting Architects were talking
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    about the end of modern architecture
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    that is to say uh L Mis uh and so on and
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    so forth the
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    iconic um the iconic
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    picture uh of the end of modernism was
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    an enormous um housing complex in the
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    sort of standard modern style I think in
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    St Louis I think it's called puit ego um
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    and this uh housing complex was blown up
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    was destroyed so the the image of the
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    destruction of this building uh was for
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    the Architects a kind of emblem of the
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    end of
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    [Music]
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    modernity and what replaced that was a
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    very different kind of architecture one
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    that was much less
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    severe uh that made less absolute
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    demands that was friendlier that was
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    more
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    decorative um uh and it was clear that
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    this was um uh something of a new uh of
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    a new style uh and postmodernism then
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    became the uh the appropriate word for
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    this um uh for this new kind of
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    architecture uh I then began to ask
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    people The Architects for example uh
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    when they thought this change
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    began what I began to feel was that uh
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    this was not just a change in
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    architecture but it was a change um uh
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    uh on many different levels of uh social
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    life uh and perhaps it was a change that
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    was more
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    significant well I won't say it was more
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    significant than the 60s which of course
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    were a
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    fundamental um moment of uh of of change
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    for many of our societies but it was the
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    consequence of the
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    60s uh it was what for us uh in America
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    uh What uh came out of the uh the end of
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    the Vietnam War the defeat in
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    Vietnam uh uh this new uh era uh that we
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    began to enter at that
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    [Music]
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    point and in my uh investigations of
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    postmodernism it was important to me not
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    just to describe this in architecture or
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    in literature but to make connections
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    with what one might call other levels of
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    social life that could be daily life
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    itself uh but it would certainly have to
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    include politics uh economics and so on
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    and so forth and I I think that after a
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    while one
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    realizes uh and I think today everyone
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    realizes is that uh around this period
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    maybe 1980 or so fundamental changes
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    were taking place uh in society uh which
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    um uh left us in a very different place
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    from um uh from the older uh the older
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    period um the most obvious change of
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    course was the introduction of the
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    personal computer it seems to me that
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    that's a fundamental uh transformation
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    that marked a fundamental transformation
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    in people's lives and gradually in the
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    whole object World um uh around us and
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    we forget that I mean uh the even the
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    the VCR
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    itself um came into being in the early
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    80s and so on and so forth one can begin
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    to collect these uh signs of change now
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    I don't think one has to think in terms
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    of
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    causality uh Society uh is a I don't
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    want to say a seamless web uh but
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    nonetheless all of these uh all of these
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    various phenomena are interrelated they
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    Echo each other they are maybe symptoms
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    of uh of some fundamental Central uh
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    reality um uh and therefore the more one
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    observes of them uh the the more
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    complete a sense one has of the nature
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    of this
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    change BL Frederick Jameson temp
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    [Music]
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    uh one can see uh this as a
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    transformation uh of our economic system
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    now uh I never wanted to say that we
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    were in a different economic system it
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    seems to me we're still very much in
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    capitalism but we're in a different
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    moment of capitalism so I posit three
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    moments of capitalism a national moment
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    uh that was what Marx was writing about
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    in the 19th century then uh a a new
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    moment of
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    expansion uh which is what Lenin writes
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    about in imperialism and which is indeed
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    the beginning of an imperial capitalism
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    the conquest of
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    colonies so what's being uh suggested
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    here by this idea of postmodernism is
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    that now we've reached a third stage of
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    capitalism which I would call uh
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    postmodern
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    capitalism which is marked by um uh uh
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    by uh Information
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    Technology uh which is marked also by
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    decolonization uh there are still
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    relations of domination all over the
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    world obviously economic domination but
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    but of a very different type than the
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    older Colonial uh Colonial type this is
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    a period dominated by Finance capital
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    and that's a very special thing and it
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    is indeed I think very closely related
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    uh to the post uh postmodern phenomena
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    was first writing on this subject I made
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    a
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    mistake which I think was quite
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    comprehensible at the time and it was to
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    call this
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    postmodernism uh because because there
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    was a postmodern style in these things
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    and then people came along and they said
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    well you know postmodernism is over
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    nobody builds buildings that way anymore
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    uh we're in a new period and so on and
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    so forth and at that point I realized
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    that I was not talking about a style
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    postmodernism I was talking about a a
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    social structure a system and therefore
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    now I would much rather I would prefer
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    to speak of
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    postmodernity in general as opposed to
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    uh the older
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    modernity uh uh and as opposed to what
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    came before
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    that um uh the other the reason I think
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    I wasn't aware of that and the other
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    Omission in the first things I wrote was
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    that a word began to be used I would say
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    in the mid
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    1980s which suddenly cast a whole new
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    light on all of this and this word was
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    globalization
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    uh hard for us to remember there was a
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    time when nobody used a word like that
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    but globalization did um emerge uh at
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    that point and that's at that point also
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    that I understood that uh that was what
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    was lacking in my description of
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    postmodernity that uh globalization was
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    the U let's say the infrastructure of
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    which postmodernity was the
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    superstructure if you like that these
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    were two faces of the same
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    reality
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    for precisely what of the great shifts
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    from the modern to the postmodern is the
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    is the shift from the dominance let's
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    think in structural terms you have a
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    dominant subordinates and so forth the
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    dominance the dominant of time in the
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    modern to the dominant uh of space in
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    the postmodern if you think of modern
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    literature uh it's obvious that the
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    great modern novels I mean it's a cliche
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    to say that Thomas man po done so on so
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    forth all of these novels are saturated
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    with time with the sense of time the
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    obsession with time and so on and so
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    forth um it is the period uh of great
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    experiments in music uh which are above
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    all uh constructions of new
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    temporalities um uh experiments in uh in
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    temporality uh I think that today uh
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    space has taken the uh um uh come to the
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    for over temporality and this um has uh
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    several uh consequences why should this
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    be so well how does one
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    explain
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    modern the modern obsession with with
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    time I just throw this out as a
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    possibility it seems to me that um the
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    modern modernism was charactera the
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    period of modernism was characterized
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    by uh an uneven
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    development um uh uh which we might
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    describe as an incomplete
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    modernization uh there were still uh
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    older there was still an older
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    agriculture uh there were still
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    peasants uh there was still there were
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    still older parts of the city older
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    professions professions that had not
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    been swept up into the bureaucratic
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    organization
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    of of modernity and so on and so forth I
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    think that um in that period people
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    moved from one temporality to another
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    people grew up in their Village they
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    came to the big city uh a city dominated
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    by speed and uh uh of a of a almost
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    inhuman kind uh and therefore they were
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    somehow
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    sensitized um to temporality such to
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    variations in
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    temporality uh I think that with
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    postmodernity we arrive at a much more
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    complete
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    modernization uh I I always take
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    agriculture as an example because I
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    think
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    that uh the there is a relationship
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    between a national culture and
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    Agriculture and peasant life um and I
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    think that to the degree that the Green
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    Revolution destroys the older
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    agriculture to the degree that the great
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    Agra businesses um uh replace uh uh
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    transform peasant into Farm Workers to
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    the degree that this genetic uh these
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    genetic crops
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    replace let's call them natural crops I
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    think U much much is transformed and one
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    must say that nature in that sense um uh
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    in nature in the older sense ceases to
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    exist and is replaced by the artificial
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    in the sense of the manmade let's say I
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    think that therefore
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    existentially um there is not the same
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    kind of um uh there's not the same kind
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    of sensitization to these variations in
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    uh in time instead what we have around
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    us is a world of built space as far as
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    the eye can see it is a new spatial
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    politics of land grabs uh struggles over
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    regions uh and so on and so forth
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    um if one's talking about existential
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    experience I think it may go something
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    like this that is to say what is the
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    status of time under a regime of
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    space um since I'm affirming this
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    priority of space What H happens to time
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    in that I think the time becomes reduced
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    to the
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    present uh and the present for each of
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    us is the body and therefore which is
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    spatial
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    uh and therefore there's a reduction
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    there's a there's a
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    gradual uh waning of our sense of past
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    and
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    future um does it impinge on personal
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    identity I think to a certain degree uh
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    that is to say I think that the the 19th
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    century novels show that people had a
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    sense of their biographical
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    Destiny uh uh and its duration in time
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    that maybe we don't have anymore uh at
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    any rate I think that in the Arts uh
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    everywhere one can see this reduction to
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    the present uh and to the body uh which
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    is another sign of the um
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    supersession uh of time by space in the
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    postmodern and there would be of course
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    more to say about
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    that the really interesting question is
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    not what happened is happiness but how
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    important is it in our
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    evaluation for
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    [Music]
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    the answer to the question what is
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    justice is
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    to understand the question to be one
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    about increasing Justice or reducing
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    Justice I argue in my book the idea of
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    justice that to think of
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    um the theory of Justice in terms of
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    identifying an ideally just set of
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    Arrangements is always a mistake we have
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    disagreements among them which do not
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    arise only for from vested interest of
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    personal um concerns it also arises from
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    the fact that we have different
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    approaches to justi this but we can
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    still agree on many
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    things uh about how to remove what
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    appears to us to be manifest in Justice
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    and thereby enhance the pursuit of
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    justice so the whole issue of what is
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    justice is not answerable in that form
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    but it is about how to increase Justice
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    reduce Injustice that's what the debate
  • 00:21:19
    has always been about I think what the
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    society has to do is to make sure that
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    the that the lines on which we agree
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    that Justice could be enhanced um are
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    Pursuit and that requires paying
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    attention to development as well which
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    is particularly important as I try to to
  • 00:21:40
    say in my earlier book development of
  • 00:21:42
    Freedom that um uh development it's it's
  • 00:21:47
    about more education more secure health
  • 00:21:50
    care and better health care and also um
  • 00:21:55
    Social Security uh and human Security in
  • 00:21:58
    general
  • 00:21:59
    so I think we have to view all these
  • 00:22:01
    other issues like growth and so on in
  • 00:22:04
    derivative terms economic growth can be
  • 00:22:06
    very important indeed it is very
  • 00:22:08
    important but not for its own sake but
  • 00:22:11
    for what this does to enhance people's
  • 00:22:14
    lives and their freedoms I begin my book
  • 00:22:18
    with a quotation from Charles Dickens
  • 00:22:20
    someone is discussing his childhood and
  • 00:22:24
    how he was unjustly treated we all the
  • 00:22:26
    time thinking about that
  • 00:22:39
    [Music]
  • 00:22:41
    the question is that quite often VI are
  • 00:22:44
    very different about what how Justice
  • 00:22:48
    should be pursued um some people would
  • 00:22:50
    give much greater importance to Liberty
  • 00:22:53
    some people even to concern with one's
  • 00:22:56
    possessions and property others would
  • 00:22:58
    give much more importance to people's
  • 00:23:02
    basic uh living and and the freedoms
  • 00:23:07
    that they enjoy the well-being they have
  • 00:23:09
    the medical care they receive the
  • 00:23:11
    education they have the opportunity to
  • 00:23:13
    have and so all these concerns come in
  • 00:23:17
    and I I have a position on that but
  • 00:23:19
    there are two really different things
  • 00:23:21
    here one is what is my position on this
  • 00:23:24
    question and the other is how do you
  • 00:23:26
    think when we disagree these differences
  • 00:23:29
    could be resolved and the isolution has
  • 00:23:32
    to be in terms of public discussion
  • 00:23:35
    exchange of views um interactive
  • 00:23:38
    scrutiny now that doesn't mean every
  • 00:23:41
    different would be result and but many
  • 00:23:44
    would be and those which are then become
  • 00:23:47
    the right candidates to be pursued by
  • 00:23:50
    the society but these things these
  • 00:23:52
    agreement won't emerge without the
  • 00:23:54
    reasoning these are not antecedent gut
  • 00:23:58
    agreement there it doesn't operate in
  • 00:24:01
    the guts it works on the vein so you
  • 00:24:03
    have to look at after reasoning what we
  • 00:24:06
    find okay this is reasonable and ready
  • 00:24:08
    to accept
  • 00:24:08
    [Music]
  • 00:24:13
    it core responsibility is always very
  • 00:24:16
    important when some people are trying to
  • 00:24:19
    act together to achieve some result I
  • 00:24:22
    think the real trouble with the
  • 00:24:23
    Copenhagen Summit is because they didn't
  • 00:24:25
    have any discussion about anything else
  • 00:24:29
    other than some fixing of Co
  • 00:24:32
    responsibility by Europeans who wanted
  • 00:24:35
    to fix a certain limit and ask the
  • 00:24:37
    Chinese the Brazilian South Africans and
  • 00:24:40
    Indians to fall in line that was never
  • 00:24:42
    going to happen and there were also
  • 00:24:44
    small Islands here and there all kinds
  • 00:24:46
    of things
  • 00:24:48
    [Music]
  • 00:24:55
    [Music]
  • 00:25:09
    [Music]
  • 00:25:12
    I think what you need is to see what
  • 00:25:15
    there are different types of
  • 00:25:16
    co-responsibility co-responsible for
  • 00:25:18
    what you know Europeans and the Chinese
  • 00:25:21
    point out that Europeans and North
  • 00:25:23
    Americans have polluted the world for
  • 00:25:26
    hundreds of years and suddenly when the
  • 00:25:28
    CH Chinese start polluting they tell the
  • 00:25:31
    Chinese stop it the games are all
  • 00:25:33
    changed now well I mean the Chinese
  • 00:25:35
    think this very unfair on the other the
  • 00:25:37
    idea that the Chinese can't get away
  • 00:25:39
    with the idea that they can pollute as
  • 00:25:40
    they like so we have to arrive at some
  • 00:25:43
    some kind of a fair settlement but the
  • 00:25:45
    fair settlement can happen only on the
  • 00:25:48
    basis of public discussion as to yes we
  • 00:25:51
    take into account the European and
  • 00:25:52
    American um having already filled up the
  • 00:25:56
    biere with their de
  • 00:25:58
    and what room is there for Brazil South
  • 00:26:01
    Africa China or India and so on and then
  • 00:26:03
    given what China India Brazil and South
  • 00:26:06
    Africa do what room is left for the
  • 00:26:08
    countries which are still not going at
  • 00:26:11
    all and and not started industrializing
  • 00:26:14
    what happens to Sudan Ethiopia Somalia
  • 00:26:18
    the sahil countries uh you know what
  • 00:26:21
    happens to to to some extent in Ghana
  • 00:26:24
    and so on only Nigeria had some some of
  • 00:26:27
    these indust will Dev happen and so one
  • 00:26:30
    has to
  • 00:26:31
    see we have to live together in a un in
  • 00:26:34
    in a universe and particularly this
  • 00:26:36
    globe and we have to find Fair
  • 00:26:39
    settlement taking into account history
  • 00:26:42
    as well as the possibilities today and
  • 00:26:45
    then on a the basis of a fairly arrived
  • 00:26:48
    contract there could be cor
  • 00:26:50
    responsibility where Copenhagen failed
  • 00:26:52
    is that they wanted to get a contract
  • 00:26:54
    with no discussion Europeans having
  • 00:26:57
    arrived at in the European soil and said
  • 00:27:00
    here it is it's a fair agreement well
  • 00:27:03
    that's not the way to do it the way to
  • 00:27:04
    do it is to have much more extensive
  • 00:27:07
    public discussion and then to portray
  • 00:27:09
    that anyone who didn't agree with the
  • 00:27:11
    Europeans must be irresponsible is is is
  • 00:27:14
    a very silly way of understanding what
  • 00:27:18
    went wrong in Copenhagen it is that
  • 00:27:21
    agreement without preceding discussion
  • 00:27:24
    is never going to to come to come to
  • 00:27:27
    pass so I think the leadership has had a
  • 00:27:30
    problem the Europeans would probably
  • 00:27:32
    like to take the leadership and they
  • 00:27:34
    have the right to do so but on the other
  • 00:27:36
    hand they have to also listen to the
  • 00:27:38
    different concerns that come from
  • 00:27:41
    already developing you know developing
  • 00:27:44
    country that are already developing fast
  • 00:27:46
    like Brazil or China or India and
  • 00:27:49
    developing count that are not yet
  • 00:27:51
    developing and and so all these are
  • 00:27:54
    different parties and they have to air
  • 00:27:57
    their view on on top of that there are
  • 00:27:59
    some new issues you can save the global
  • 00:28:02
    warming problem with um using nuclear
  • 00:28:06
    fuel which are still quite expensive
  • 00:28:08
    compared with coal and other and and oil
  • 00:28:11
    but the Hope was that it will become
  • 00:28:13
    cheaper but then Fukushima disaster
  • 00:28:15
    brings out in a country of great
  • 00:28:17
    scientific achievement and tremendous
  • 00:28:19
    discipline that it can still cause
  • 00:28:22
    absolute havoc and had it happened in
  • 00:28:25
    countries that are not as disciplined uh
  • 00:28:28
    it that could have been disaster
  • 00:28:35
    [Music]
  • 00:29:25
    so when that is it all right to fill the
  • 00:29:27
    world with hundreds of thousands of
  • 00:29:29
    these
  • 00:29:31
    nuclear reactors I think that would be
  • 00:29:34
    that could be very serious indeed so one
  • 00:29:37
    has to think about to what extent to
  • 00:29:40
    proper subsidy um solar wind power and
  • 00:29:44
    other things can be pursued and if it
  • 00:29:47
    can be pursued how economic can you make
  • 00:29:49
    it does it become economic after taking
  • 00:29:53
    into account the externalities of coal
  • 00:29:56
    for example for the global war warming
  • 00:29:58
    and the externalities of nuclear power
  • 00:30:01
    for the danger of uh sabotage accident
  • 00:30:06
    or stealing of nuclear material which is
  • 00:30:09
    quite a serious issue when you have it
  • 00:30:11
    everywhere it's not so hard to get it
  • 00:30:14
    think stealing takes place in the world
  • 00:30:16
    all the time
  • 00:30:26
    [Music]
  • 00:30:28
    my concept of Happiness isn't any
  • 00:30:30
    different I hope from
  • 00:30:33
    yours I think happiness is the word and
  • 00:30:36
    she
  • 00:30:37
    follow the lines of analysis presented
  • 00:30:41
    by wienstein we follow certain rules in
  • 00:30:46
    describing understanding what if you see
  • 00:30:48
    a person crying in the street you they
  • 00:30:50
    say gosh this person must be very happy
  • 00:30:53
    because that's not the rule we follow so
  • 00:30:55
    we tend to follow that the really
  • 00:30:57
    interesting question is not what Happ is
  • 00:30:59
    happiness but how important is it in our
  • 00:31:03
    evaluation because you some people
  • 00:31:05
    regard that utilitarians do that that's
  • 00:31:08
    the only thing that ultimately matters
  • 00:31:10
    it anything that makes you happy would
  • 00:31:12
    be fine so that you if you're put in a
  • 00:31:15
    pleasure machine as Robert nosi
  • 00:31:17
    discussed and St to it but there's some
  • 00:31:20
    kind of in some kind of drug given to
  • 00:31:23
    you or some kind of Sensational creating
  • 00:31:27
    uh move movement made so you feel very
  • 00:31:29
    happy then you are leading a very good
  • 00:31:31
    life now on the other hand I would say
  • 00:31:34
    that you're trapped in a chair and you
  • 00:31:36
    can't get up and you being lot of things
  • 00:31:38
    are being done to you which is not
  • 00:31:40
    something you choose I would got to be a
  • 00:31:42
    pretty bad life so I think one has to
  • 00:31:44
    think about the importance of happiness
  • 00:31:47
    I certainly don't take the view that
  • 00:31:49
    happiness is the only thing that matters
  • 00:31:51
    but given other things is happiness
  • 00:31:54
    important yeah it's not a measure of
  • 00:31:56
    everything but in itself
  • 00:31:58
    yes indeed and happiness of different
  • 00:32:01
    kind there is uh Comfort there is
  • 00:32:05
    stimulation you could be very
  • 00:32:06
    comfortable and no stimulation at all or
  • 00:32:09
    you could have huge stimulation and
  • 00:32:11
    toally uncomfortable like moat might
  • 00:32:14
    have been and and so in all kinds of
  • 00:32:16
    ways you have different elements in
  • 00:32:19
    happiness I once wrote a paper called
  • 00:32:21
    plural utility which I'm not asking you
  • 00:32:24
    to read came out with other classical
  • 00:32:27
    Journal call proceedings of the
  • 00:32:29
    Aristotelian Society U but my question
  • 00:32:33
    my concern here is how to assess
  • 00:32:36
    happiness how do we understand the
  • 00:32:38
    different elements in it rather than
  • 00:32:41
    what is happiness there we're trying to
  • 00:32:43
    follow the rules that the language has
  • 00:32:45
    given
  • 00:32:47
    us Simon black think of myself as
  • 00:32:50
    somebody who brings people to philosophy
  • 00:32:53
    I don't bring philosophy to people it's
  • 00:32:55
    the power of ideas the difficulty of
  • 00:32:58
    ideas the reason why taking command of
  • 00:33:03
    ideas is so important andh
  • 00:33:10
    [Music]
  • 00:33:53
    Simon
  • 00:34:00
    [Music]
  • 00:34:01
    one advantage of philosophy and of the
  • 00:34:04
    history of ideas the philosophy of ideas
  • 00:34:06
    and the history of ideas is that it
  • 00:34:08
    opens the students mind to the
  • 00:34:11
    difficulties involved in even the most
  • 00:34:14
    Elementary sounding concept a concept
  • 00:34:16
    that you might think is the property of
  • 00:34:19
    the whole world that has no history it's
  • 00:34:21
    always been part of the thought
  • 00:34:24
    processes of mankind and if you learn
  • 00:34:27
    that Concepts and not they have a life
  • 00:34:28
    they have a history they have a uh um a
  • 00:34:33
    pattern of Discovery a pattern of
  • 00:34:35
    refinement a pattern of change uh then
  • 00:34:38
    you learn something very important about
  • 00:34:40
    our minds and eventually about our lives
  • 00:34:43
    and our politics because I think one of
  • 00:34:46
    the most dangerous uh political ideas is
  • 00:34:49
    the idea that our way is the only way um
  • 00:34:53
    we are the only people of reason or we
  • 00:34:56
    are the only people to have got
  • 00:34:57
    something right our way is the best way
  • 00:35:02
    um I think opening your mind to other
  • 00:35:05
    ways of thought which is one of the
  • 00:35:06
    things that philosophy and history most
  • 00:35:08
    certainly do for you is a very important
  • 00:35:12
    educational device and without it think
  • 00:35:15
    of what we risk Socrates is supposed to
  • 00:35:18
    have said that the unexamined life is
  • 00:35:20
    not worth living um Hegel said that
  • 00:35:24
    philosophy is the queen of the Sciences
  • 00:35:26
    nowadays I think if you took a snap poll
  • 00:35:29
    on the internet what's the queen of the
  • 00:35:33
    Sciences people would say physics
  • 00:35:36
    physics perhaps mathematics mathematical
  • 00:35:39
    physics um why did Hegel think that
  • 00:35:41
    philosophy was well he may have had bad
  • 00:35:44
    reasons but I think he had good reasons
  • 00:35:46
    and the good reason was
  • 00:35:48
    that all paths lead to
  • 00:35:51
    reflection um a physicist um May do
  • 00:35:56
    wonderful work B based on a particular
  • 00:35:58
    set of concepts with a particular set of
  • 00:36:00
    problems but eventually he's going to
  • 00:36:03
    use terms like energy time um entropy uh
  • 00:36:09
    in his uh thoughts about physical
  • 00:36:12
    systems and if he starts to reflect he's
  • 00:36:16
    going to ask of the nature of those
  • 00:36:18
    Concepts what's their uh what's their
  • 00:36:20
    identity what do they what do they
  • 00:36:21
    really mean um how do we measure them uh
  • 00:36:26
    is their meaning just given by the way
  • 00:36:28
    that that we measure them or is
  • 00:36:29
    something else involved and those are
  • 00:36:31
    philosophical questions they're
  • 00:36:33
    questions in which the concepts which he
  • 00:36:36
    normally uses themselves become the
  • 00:36:39
    topic of
  • 00:36:41
    interest and I think that's
  • 00:36:42
    characteristic of philosophy one
  • 00:36:45
    metaphor to explain that might be this
  • 00:36:47
    that when you look at the world you look
  • 00:36:51
    at the world deploying a set of
  • 00:36:54
    categories using a set of thoughts um
  • 00:36:58
    one of the few things that all
  • 00:37:00
    psychologists and philosophers agree
  • 00:37:02
    about now is that there is no such thing
  • 00:37:05
    as the innocent eye your eye is trained
  • 00:37:09
    your eye is the eye of somebody who has
  • 00:37:12
    your Human Experience has learned to
  • 00:37:15
    detect various saliences in uh the scene
  • 00:37:19
    around you to notice some things to fail
  • 00:37:21
    to notice other things to categorize the
  • 00:37:23
    world in a certain way philosophy arises
  • 00:37:26
    when those categories are themselves the
  • 00:37:28
    subject of your vision you you turn your
  • 00:37:31
    attention onto the lens through which
  • 00:37:34
    you normally see the world the lens
  • 00:37:36
    formed by your preconceived ideas your
  • 00:37:39
    culturally embedded traditions and
  • 00:37:40
    habits uh the things that you uh
  • 00:37:43
    naturally interpret the world in terms
  • 00:37:45
    of then become the topics of thought but
  • 00:37:49
    I think nobody is so innocent as to
  • 00:37:51
    think that their way of perceiving the
  • 00:37:54
    world is the only possible way of
  • 00:37:56
    perceiving the world and then you have
  • 00:37:59
    to ask yourself what is the
  • 00:38:00
    justification of the categories you
  • 00:38:02
    bring to the world are there
  • 00:38:04
    Alternatives could they do better could
  • 00:38:06
    they be refined could they be more clear
  • 00:38:08
    could they be uh could you be helped to
  • 00:38:11
    understand them better to understand the
  • 00:38:13
    roots of inference the uh the practices
  • 00:38:17
    in which they become embedded and which
  • 00:38:19
    to which they give rise so it's ideas
  • 00:38:22
    are the most important determinants of
  • 00:38:24
    our lives in many ways of course other
  • 00:38:26
    things are too energy is very important
  • 00:38:29
    I have to say this in this building
  • 00:38:30
    energy is very important um but ideas
  • 00:38:34
    will determine who can pay for the
  • 00:38:36
    energy um who who can deploy the world's
  • 00:38:39
    resources how they are to be allocated
  • 00:38:41
    uh those will be ideas to do with the
  • 00:38:44
    for example the different roles of the
  • 00:38:46
    market and the different roles of the
  • 00:38:48
    body politic of the social and political
  • 00:38:51
    structures that we live in
  • 00:38:55
    [Music]
  • 00:38:58
    we saw a very
  • 00:39:01
    strange sea change in the climate of
  • 00:39:05
    ideas it was the view that created in
  • 00:39:07
    Europe the welfare state the idea that
  • 00:39:10
    the collective the body politic the
  • 00:39:13
    nation or the group we all hung together
  • 00:39:17
    um people deserved therefore if they
  • 00:39:20
    couldn't afford it they deserved free
  • 00:39:22
    education if they couldn't afford it
  • 00:39:24
    they deserved free medicine they
  • 00:39:26
    deserved that the state look after us
  • 00:39:28
    take care of our vulnerable side our
  • 00:39:33
    dependencies uh basically from birth to
  • 00:39:35
    death and that was a consensus in Europe
  • 00:39:38
    certainly uh from the well before the
  • 00:39:42
    second world war but it gained in speed
  • 00:39:45
    after the second world war um suddenly
  • 00:39:48
    people started saying things like greed
  • 00:39:49
    is good private contract became
  • 00:39:54
    sacran uh the wisdom of the market the
  • 00:39:56
    idea that you could have simply
  • 00:40:00
    individual atoms selfish atoms
  • 00:40:03
    self-interested atomistic individual
  • 00:40:06
    people owing no identity to society no
  • 00:40:09
    identity to their culture their
  • 00:40:11
    surrounding their politics free
  • 00:40:13
    individual
  • 00:40:14
    agents and the ideal political and
  • 00:40:17
    social Arrangement was one in which
  • 00:40:18
    these free agents simply tried to
  • 00:40:20
    maximize their own um profits or their
  • 00:40:24
    own pleasure or their own um economic
  • 00:40:26
    well-being
  • 00:40:28
    by means of interchange free interchange
  • 00:40:30
    free market interchange with each other
  • 00:40:32
    this became the ideology of the market
  • 00:40:34
    the ideology of the free
  • 00:40:36
    market why did this happen in
  • 00:40:39
    1979 I don't know the answer I guess the
  • 00:40:42
    terms of
  • 00:40:43
    cooperation which make up a society or a
  • 00:40:46
    collective have begun to seem wrong to
  • 00:40:49
    the people who felt that they their um
  • 00:40:52
    uh the amount they were contributing to
  • 00:40:54
    the social good was more than the amount
  • 00:40:56
    they were getting out of it
  • 00:40:58
    um so they naturally felt they could
  • 00:40:59
    form a breakaway we the rich can as it
  • 00:41:04
    were afford to ignore the poor the poor
  • 00:41:06
    are being parasitic upon the rich and
  • 00:41:09
    that became the set of ideas it's most
  • 00:41:12
    famously uh exhibited in Robert nok's
  • 00:41:15
    book Anarchy State and Utopia a
  • 00:41:17
    rightwing repost to the more social uh
  • 00:41:21
    um socially just social justice
  • 00:41:23
    orientated Book of John rolls a theory
  • 00:41:25
    of Justice which and those two books
  • 00:41:27
    together basically have set the scene
  • 00:41:30
    for political philosophy uh ever since a
  • 00:41:33
    curious aspect of this kind of shift in
  • 00:41:37
    perspective um which I think has to be
  • 00:41:39
    understood historically it may seem very
  • 00:41:41
    remote from anything of immediate
  • 00:41:44
    practical interest we're interested in
  • 00:41:46
    the economy we're interested
  • 00:41:48
    in uh the distribution of costs and
  • 00:41:51
    benefits of cooperation we're interested
  • 00:41:53
    in perhaps our morality you know how to
  • 00:41:56
    deal with our daughter who's going off
  • 00:41:57
    the rails or something like
  • 00:41:59
    that um those are the practical Affairs
  • 00:42:02
    of life and this this interplay between
  • 00:42:05
    our ideas our Concepts the lenses
  • 00:42:08
    through which we see the world and
  • 00:42:11
    practice uh which has always struck me
  • 00:42:13
    as the absolutely
  • 00:42:15
    fascinating justification really for
  • 00:42:18
    being interested in
  • 00:42:20
    [Music]
  • 00:42:25
    philosophy people get very worried about
  • 00:42:28
    the meaning in life when they think
  • 00:42:29
    about the size of the universe or the
  • 00:42:31
    length of time the length of time
  • 00:42:34
    there's going to be after you're dead
  • 00:42:36
    length of time there's going to be after
  • 00:42:38
    you're forgotten the
  • 00:42:40
    endless galaxies hundreds of thousands
  • 00:42:44
    millions of galaxies in which you're not
  • 00:42:46
    heard of so we're very insignificant in
  • 00:42:49
    the space of the universe either in
  • 00:42:52
    space or time and then they think oh
  • 00:42:54
    well it would be better if we were
  • 00:42:56
    bigger if we lasted for longer or if we
  • 00:43:00
    occupied more space um and I think
  • 00:43:03
    that's just a mistake that's just a
  • 00:43:05
    that's imagining a meaning arriving from
  • 00:43:08
    Mere lasting longer uh but if lasting
  • 00:43:12
    longer was just more of the same it
  • 00:43:14
    wouldn't give meaning at all I mean I
  • 00:43:17
    find meaning in something like one of my
  • 00:43:19
    children's smile or meeting my wife
  • 00:43:22
    after an absence that's a meaningful
  • 00:43:24
    experience it wouldn't be more
  • 00:43:26
    meaningful if it went on on forever so I
  • 00:43:28
    think you have to learn to find meaning
  • 00:43:30
    in perspective in the in our
  • 00:43:33
    perspective people like you fill my
  • 00:43:35
    perspective at present um I find meaning
  • 00:43:38
    in trying to speak to you in ways that
  • 00:43:39
    you appreciate or the ways that mean
  • 00:43:42
    something to you and if I fail in that
  • 00:43:44
    then this evening has no meaning for me
  • 00:43:47
    I want people to appreciate the power of
  • 00:43:50
    ideas the difficulty of ideas the reason
  • 00:43:54
    why taking command of ideas
  • 00:43:57
    is so important and is better than
  • 00:44:00
    having ideas take control of you there
  • 00:44:04
    going to be people who say yeah
  • 00:44:06
    reflection you know I don't I don't need
  • 00:44:07
    that stuff and it's certainly true for
  • 00:44:11
    large parts of life we don't need that
  • 00:44:13
    stuff you uh you want to know the bus
  • 00:44:16
    timetable you don't ask a philosopher
  • 00:44:18
    you ask the bus timetable you go to
  • 00:44:20
    Google you search it and so on um what
  • 00:44:24
    I'm interested in are the the categories
  • 00:44:26
    that structure our thoughts the the
  • 00:44:28
    categories that structure our terms of
  • 00:44:30
    cooperation our Pol politics and our
  • 00:44:33
    ethics um if people say that that's not
  • 00:44:37
    practical I would take I I think that's
  • 00:44:41
    that is itself a kind of
  • 00:44:43
    blindness um we we conceptualize the
  • 00:44:47
    world we think of the world in terms of
  • 00:44:49
    Concepts just take a concept like
  • 00:44:52
    progress you can immediately start to
  • 00:44:55
    interrogate that and wonder what the
  • 00:44:57
    costs and burdens of progress are um
  • 00:45:01
    think think of a concept like reason uh
  • 00:45:04
    we all like to think that we're
  • 00:45:05
    reasonable you know philosophers
  • 00:45:07
    supposed to be above all a guardian of
  • 00:45:10
    Reason somebody like Hume comes along
  • 00:45:12
    and asks us to interrogate the concept
  • 00:45:14
    of Reason what makes for reason in human
  • 00:45:18
    Affairs experience we all like to think
  • 00:45:21
    that we learn from experience but what's
  • 00:45:23
    Experience um uh you know experience
  • 00:45:27
    comes filtered it's filtered especially
  • 00:45:29
    by memory um how do we know when we're
  • 00:45:32
    using experience in the right way and in
  • 00:45:34
    the wrong way to come to ideas about
  • 00:45:37
    things you don't have to ask those
  • 00:45:39
    questions and some people have no
  • 00:45:41
    interest in those questions I to me a
  • 00:45:43
    puzzle is there to be solved so I I do
  • 00:45:46
    require a certain kind
  • 00:45:48
    of um ambition from a young philosopher
  • 00:45:53
    [Music]
  • 00:46:09
    pH
  • 00:46:10
    [Music]
  • 00:46:29
    n
  • 00:46:33
    [Music]
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